The Ancient Metallurgy of Copper: Archaeology-experiment-theory

additional airflow analysis ancient appear Arabah archaeological Area Bachmann balance bellows blast Bronze Age charcoal charge clay composition concentrations contained copper ingot copper smelting crucible diameter Early estimated evidence excavation experimental finds fire flow flux formed fragments front fuel furnace bottom furnace slag furnace wall Graph heap hearth heat inclusions increased indicated ingot inner iron Kingdom Late Layer lead lining lower mass material maximum measured metal Metallurgy Mining minute mixed molten ND ND ND observed operation oxide period phase position possible preheating present production quantity ratio reconstruction refining remains remelted removed represents ring Rothenberg samples sand seems separation shaft shape showed SiO2 smelting experiments smelting furnace stone structure supply surface Table tapped slag techniques temperature thick Timna tuyere Tylecote values weight