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Food & Agriculture Org.

a twophase assessment	3

Box 2 Can and should the hidden benefits of agrifood systems be quantified? How?	4

Box 3 Tracing pathways from hidden costs to impacts	6

Box 4 Global Burden of Disease data	8

Box 5 Refining and breaking down global health hidden costs in order to identify levers	9

Figure 1 Global map of the agrifood systems typology	11

Figure 3 Global agrifood systems actors	13

Figure 4 Levers for agrifood systems transformation	14

Box 16 The World Banana Forum Commission on Living Wages and Income	55

Box 17 Retailers call for living wages in the banana sector	58

PENNYs initiative	60

Box 19 Investing in sustainable agrifood systems in the Kingdom of the Netherlands	61

Box 20 Investing in agroecological businesses in East Africa	62

Box 21 Economic access to energysufficient versus healthy diets	67

Box 22 Addressing the social hidden costs of agrifood systems through right to food	68

Box 23 Assessing diet quality through 24hour recalls and associations with overweight and obesity and dietrelated noncommunicable disease risk fa...	71

Figure 5 Country income groups within agrifood systems categories	19

Figure 6 Quantified hidden costs by agrifood systems category trillion 2020 PPP dollars	20

Figure 7 Quantified hidden costs as a share of gross domestic product by agrifood systems category	21

Figure 8 Dietary NCD risks of under and overconsumption of foods and nutrients by agrifood systems category	23

Box 6 Challenges of agrifood systems in protracted crisis countries and territories	25

Box 7 Description of the machinelearning exercise to link food availability to food intake	30

Table 1 Desired outcomes that are most effective in decreasing the hidden cost subcategories by country 2050	31

Box 8 The need to go to subnational level for tailored countrylevel TCA assessments	33

insights from Switzerland	35

Figure 10 Distribution of farm size by agrifood systems category	43

Figure 12 Emissions per unit of agricultural land and per unit of value added by agrifood systems category	45

The value of addressing the hidden costs of gender gaps in agriculture	49

Box 12 Hidden costs of coffee production in the East African value chain	50

Box 13 Environmental stewardship among smallscale fisheries	52

Box 14 Farmer protests in Europe	53

Box 15 True cost accounting of communitymanaged natural farming in India	54

Box 24 The Cost of Hunger methodology for Africa and Latin America	73

Box 25 Healthy diets are essential but not sufficient to eliminate stunting	74

Box 26 The hidden health environmental and social value of supporting breastfeeding	75

Table 2 Levers for channelling purchasing power to healthier and more sustainable diets	76

the case of Chile	81

policy enablers and challenges	84

Table 3 Distributional challenges and mechanisms to address spatial and temporal divides between agrifood systems actors for transformation	89

balancing product reformulation and consumer behaviour	91

Box 30 Guidance for national governments on true cost accounting	93

Box 31 Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation reducing hidden costs by financing economically viable and sustainable prac...	95

European Union Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive	96

Table A21 Environmental social and health hidden costs millions 2020 PPP dollars	102

Table A22 Health hidden costs by dietary patterns millions 2020 PPP dollars	108

Table A3 Existing global studies on agrifood support policy reform	116

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