disputed matters arising out of the interpretation of the treaty to an arbitral tribunal mutually agreed upon. In some instances such engagements were entered into with a solemn stipulation that the alliances were to be perpetual; and if these undertakings proved vain in actual practice, they were at least of great importance in the evolution of theoretical principles which, at one time or another, exercised a reactionary influence of greater or lesser efficacy on the determination of interstatal relationships.

Greek

The most important cases of Greek confederacies Chief cases of were the first and the second Athenian leagues, and the confederacies. Peloponnesian confederacy under the leadership of

Sparta.

First, as to the earlier Athenian league.1 After the First Athenian discomfiture of the Persians at Mycale, 479 B.C., the league. Greek islanders, including the inhabitants of Samos, Chios, and Lesbos, were received into the pan-Hellenic confederacy that had been established to cope with the Persian power. The Ionian and Aetolian cities of Asia Minor were not accepted as members of the league, so that they were obliged to throw themselves on the protection of Athens. After the subjugation of the greater portion of Cyprus by Pausanias, the inhabitants of the other Greek islands joined the confederacy, whilst at Byzantium, which was captured by the Greek fleet, Pausanias offended the allies by his imperious and supercilious conduct, and his alleged medism; whereupon the Greeks of the Hellespont and Ionia appealed to Aristides and Cimon to assume the

1 Cf. Grote, Hist. of Greece, vol. iv. pp. 379 seq., chap. xlv.; Köhler, Urkunden und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des delisch-attischen Bundes (in Abhandlungen d. Kgl. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1869, vol i. pt. ii. pp. 1-211); H. Nöthe, Der delische Bund, seine Einrichtung und Verfassung (Magdeburg, 1889); G. Gilbert, Hanab. d. gr. Staatsalterthümer (Leipzig, 1893), vol. i. pp. 468 seq.; P. Guiraud, De la condition des alliés pendant la première confédération athénienne (in Annuaire de la faculté des lettres de Bordeaux, vol. v. pp. 168 seq.).

Objects of the league.

command of the fleet. In the meantime the Spartans had despatched Dorcis to supersede Pausanias. By the year 478-477 B.C. the Athenian league, called the 'Confederacy of Delos' (from the arrangement that the allies' delegates should meet periodically for deliberation in the temple of Apollo in Delos), comprised Samos, Chios, Lesbos, Rhodes, Cos, and Tenedos, as well as Miletus, the Greek towns on the peninsula of Chalcidice, and Byzantium; and, after the victory of Cimon over the Persians at the river Eurymedon in Pamphylia, 466 B.C., the Greeks of the Carian, Lycian, and Pamphylian coasts were also admitted into the league. The assessment of each State in a certain contribution either of ships or of funds (pópos) was confided to Aristides. By the first apportionment, the sum was fixed at 460 talents (about £106,000 sterling). Certain officials called Hellenotamiai (Envoτauía), Hellenic treasurers, were now appointed for the first time to collect and administer the contributions, which were deposited in the treasury at Delos (afterwards transferred by Pericles to Athens). The original objects of the confederacy were to effect a thorough emancipation of the allies from Persian supremacy, ἐπ ̓ ἐλευθερώσει ἀπὸ τοῦ Μήδου τοῖς "EXλno, and to combine against any subsequent invasions. To further this purpose there were to be periodical meetings of the Federal Council in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delos. It was incumbent on

4

5

1 Thus Aristotle (Ath. Pol. xxiii. 4) says of the counsels of Aristides and the advantage he took of the opportunity which presented itself by the discredit cast on the Laconians owing to the conduct of Pausanias: ἐπὶ δὲ τὴν ἀπόστασιν τὴν τῶν Ἰώνων ἀπὸ τῆς τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων συμμαχίας Αριστείδης ἦν ὁ προτρέψας, τηρήσας τοὺς Λάκωνας διαβεβλημένους διὰ Παυσανίαν.

2 Cf. Herodot. ix. 106; Thuc. i. 89, 94, 95, 96, 128; Plut. Aristid. 23; Aristot. Ath. Pol. xxiii. 5; Diod. xi. 60.

3 Arist. Ath. Pol. xxiii. 5 : διὸ καὶ τοὺς φόρους οὗτος ἦν ὁ τάξας ταῖς πόλεσι τοὺς πρώτους, ἔτει τρίτῳ μετὰ τὴν ἐν Σαλαμῖνι ναυμαχίαν. . . .

4Thục. iii. IO.

5 Thuc. i. 96; ii, ro.

the Council to discharge, on the one hand, political and diplomatic functions in the determination of the policy of the league, and, on the other, to fulfil judicial and arbitral duties as a federal tribunal.1 "We have here in truth," says Grote, "one of the few moments in Grecian history wherein a purpose at once common, equal, useful, and innocent, brought together spontaneously many fragments of this disunited race, and overlaid for a time that exclusive bent towards petty and isolated autonomy which ultimately made slaves of them all. It was a proceeding equitable and prudent, in principle as well as in detail; promising at the time the most beneficent consequences, not merely protection against the Persians, but a standing police of the Aegean Sea, regulated by a common superintending authority. And if such promise was not realized, we shall find that the inherent defects of the allies, indisposing them to the hearty appreciation and steady performance of their duties as equal confederates, are at least as much chargeable with the failure as the ambition of Athens."2

3

hegemony and

The hegemony of Athens gradually developed into Athenian a decisive political preponderance, and the confederacy sovereignty. was after a time virtually transformed into an Athenian empire. The allies became weary of the incessant wars ; they disliked absence from home, as Thucydides says; and ultimately most of them agreed to pay an annual sum of money instead of supplying ships and troops,χρήματα ἐτάξαντο ἀντὶ τῶν νεῶν τὸ ἱκνούμενον ἀνάλωμα pépew... Such States as had proved recalcitrant, either by refusing to contribute contingents or money, as the case may be, or by openly revolting through the increasing oppressiveness of the Athenian supremacy,

་

1 Thuc i. 96, 97.—Cf. Köhler, loc. cit. pp. 88 seq.

2 Hist. of Greece, vol. iv. chap. xliv. p. 355.

* Thuc. i. 99 : ἵνα μὴ απ' οἴκου ὦσι.

4 Thuc. i. 99.-Cf. Köhler, loc. cit. pp. 93 seq.; Nöthe, op. cit. PP. 9 seq.

Athens and her allies

were vigorously reduced to the condition of disarmed and passive tributaries, and the terms of their subjection to Athens were severally determined by special treaties. Hermocrates addressing the Camarinaeans in Sicily, 415 B.C., warned them that the Athenians whilst pretending to liberate Hellas were really enslaving it. Thus, the Ionians and other colonists of theirs who were their allies (he reminded them) wanting to revenge themselves on the Persians, freely invited the Athenians to be their leaders; and the invitation was accepted. "But soon they charged them, some with desertion, and some with making war upon each other; any plausible accusation which they could bring against any of them became an excuse for their overthrow.' In accordance with this policy, Naxos, the largest island of the Cyclades, was in 466 B.C. subjugated and deprived of its autonomy; and soon after, Thasos shared the same fate. By the year 454 B.C. all the allied States, except Samos, Lesbos, and Chios, had become subjects' (Kool) of Athens; and the treasury of the league was removed from Delos to Athens. From about 447 B.c. the power of Athens, however, began to decline; and in 412 B.C., in the twentieth year of the Peloponnesian war, the league was broken up through the jealous activities of her inveterate rival, Sparta."

3

2

The Confederates were officially designated oi oiuμaxoi political and (allies) or ai wóλes (cities, states); but in ordinary usage, and to indicate the real character of the relation

legal

relationships.

1 Thuc. vi. 76 : . . . τοὺς μὲν λειποστρατίαν, τοὺς δὲ ἐπ ̓ ἀλλήλους στρατεύειν, τοῖς δ ̓ ὡς ἑκάστοις τινὰ εἶχον αἰτίαν εὐπρεπῆ, ἐπενεγ κόντες κατεστρέψαντο.

2 Thuc. i. 98 : . . . πρώτη τε αὕτη πόλις ξυμμαχὶς παρὰ τὸ καθεστηκὸς ἐδουλώθη, ἔπειτα δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὡς ἑκάστη ξυνέβη.—Cf. ibid. i. 100, 101.

3 Cf. Arist. Ath. Pol. xxiv. 2; Corp. inscrip. Att. i. 260.

4Thuc. viii. 14, 22.

5 Cf. Corp. inscrip. Att. i. 9, 31, 37, 40.-Thus i. 9 speaks of ἡ Αθηναίων ξυμμαχία.

ships, they came to be described as výκoo (subjects).1 Some were autonomous allies, others were tributary.2 The former had to supply a specified number of fully equipped vessels of war; but in reference to their internal administration they enjoyed independence.3 The latter had to pay a yearly tribute, and were subject to certain restrictions in regard to the character of their constitution and internal administration. Athens maintained garrisons in many of the allied towns; and in the case also of the subject confederates, public officers (επίσκοποι) were despatched as overseers of their civil affairs. The prevailing form of government was democratic ; but in some cases aristocracies or oligarchies were retained, as in Samos,' and Mytilene, which were autonomous States prior to their their subjugation. It appears that the tributary allies were subsequently divided into tribute-districts, which were also used as divisions in order to facilitate the central administration.9

1Cf. Thuc. vi. 22, 43, 69; vii. 57.-See generally A. Fränkel, De condicione, jure, jurisdictione sociorum Atheniensium (Leipzig, 1878), and esp. pp. 9 seq.

2 Thucydides, in vii. 57, does not appear to draw a precise distinction between αὐτόνομοι and ὑποτελεῖς φόρου (subject to taxation). Cf. ibid. i. 19; iii. 10; vi. 85.

3 For example, Thucydides says, vi. 85: Xíovs pèv кaì Mŋ0νμναίους νεῶν, παροχή [according to another reading, παροκωχῆ] αὐτονόμους.—vii. 57 : τούτων Χῖοι οὐχ ὑποτελεῖς ὄντες φόρου, ναῦς δὲ παρέχοντες, αὐτόνομοι ξυνέσποντο.... Μηθυμναῖοι μὲν ναυσὶ καὶ où дóρ výкOOL.... (The Chians were independent, and, instead οὐ φόρῳ ὑπήκοοι. of paying tribute, provided ships.... The Methymnaeans furnished ships, but were not tributaries.)

+ Cf. Thuc. vi. 85; vii. 57.-But in iii. 10 the Mytilenaeans are made to say that all the allies were enslaved except themselves and the Chians, οἱ ξύμμαχοι ἐδουλώθησαν πλὴν ἡμῶν καὶ Χίων.

5 Cf. Aristoph. Aves, 1021 seq.; Corp. inscrip. Graec. i. 110.

9 Cf. Corp. inscrip. Att. i. 37; Hicks, 64 ; Corp. inscrip. Att. i. 31; Hicks, 41 : ... βοηθεῖν τὰς πόλεις ὡς ὀχσύτατα κατὰ τὰς χσυγγραφάς 41:... ... (ll. 14-15),—the cities of the Athenian confederacy are to defend