before March 1. Cicero tried in vain to bring about a better understanding. Caesar marched his army across the Rubicon, the boundary line of his province, and seemed likely to move on Rome. Cicero undertook the defense of Capua, making his headquarters at Formiae.

Here he remained about two months, and kept up a correspondence with the leaders of both armies. His indecision at this critical time was pitiable, unfortunate alike for his country, for himself at that time, and for his reputation in all time. Finding that he could not cope with Caesar and his veterans in Italy, Pompey passed over into Greece, Cicero reluctantly following. After the battle of Pharsalus (48 B.C.), persuaded that Caesar's victory had practically ended the war, he determined to return to Italy, and reached Brundisium about the end of November. Here he remained about two months in a wretched condition of mind and body. When Caesar returned to Italy after settling the affairs of Egypt, Cicero went out to meet him and was received with marked courtesy. Soon after this Cicero went to Rome.

The next three years were devoted to philosophy and literature. But soon family troubles began to appear. After thirty years of married life Cicero divorced his wife Terentia, and soon afterward married his ward Publilia, who was also soon divorced. The death of his much loved daughter Tullia almost broke the father's heart. Work and study were his only solace until the assassination of Caesar (March 15, 44 B.C.) recalled him from thoughts of self to the service of his country.

The conspirators who murdered Caesar seem to have had no definite plans. The people were horrified, and M. Antonius, the surviving consul, was for the moment

stricken with fear. The Liberators, as the conspirators called themselves, retired for safety to the Capitol. Antony quickly recovered himself, and, when Cicero urged peace and mutual concessions, professed to wish the same. The Liberators came from their stronghold, the acts and appointments of Caesar were ratified, and hopes were entertained for a restoration of the republic. But Antony had other plans. In the oration which he delivered at the public funeral of Caesar, he artfully excited the populace against the Liberators to such a degree that they were compelled to flee from Rome. Seeing that his life also was in danger, Cicero set out for Greece, hoping for better things under the next year's administration. He went as far as Syracuse, when, driven back by contrary winds, he heard that his services were required in Rome, and he hastened to return to the city. There was a meeting of the senate on the day after his return. Cicero did not attend, pleading fatigue, but really fearing the designs of Antonius. In this meeting Antonius declared that the absence of Cicero was due to cowardice, and he threatened to destroy his house. Cicero's reply was the first Philippic. Antonius replied, and thus called forth the second Philippic, a thrilling arraignment of Antonius. Though not

spoken, it was widely circulated after the departure of Antonius for Gaul.

Early in 43 B.C. Cicero was once more the favorite of Rome, and when the tidings of the defeat of Antonius at Mutina came, he was escorted by a throng of people to the Capitol, thence to the rostra, and thence to his home.

In November of this year Antonius, Lepidus, and Octavianus arranged their differences, centered all the government in themselves, and proscribed their enemies. Cicero

was among the first victims of Antony's hatred, and was murdered on the grounds of his villa near Formiae, December 7, 43 B.C.

Cicero was the greatest orator of "the greatest of the nations." He was a man of lofty ideals, pure and upright in his personal and official relations, and devoted to his country. His writings are an enduring monument to his memory, and his influence on oratory, literature, and philosophy has been and still is inestimable. He lacked decision and moral courage in some of the critical moments of his life, and did not possess the far-seeing vision of a statesman. "As it was in his lifetime so it has been with his memory: those who have known him most intimately have commonly loved him best. He is no demi-god to be set on a pedestal for the worship of the nations, but a man with human virtues and human weaknesses, and withal possessed of a charm of grace and goodness which makes us think of him as of some familiar and beloved friend.”

λόγιος ἀνήρ, ὦ παῖ, λόγιος καὶ φιλόπατρις, said Augustus to his grandson concerning Cicero, in a story told by Plutarch, "an eloquent man, boy, eloquent and loved his country well."

"To praise him as he deserves, we need another Cicero."

First appearance in a civil case (for Quinctius)

81

First appearance in a criminal case .

80

In Greece and Asia Minor for health and study
Quaestor in Sicily.

79-77

75

Prosecution of Verres

70

H. & G. CIC. — 2

Roman oratory both exhibited and influenced the character of the people. In the early days it was simple and earnest, suited to a practical people eager for dominion. The successful orator had to stir the feelings and prompt to action, whether his theme was a defect in the constitution, an official injustice, or some military emergency. Nature was the orator's teacher. "Rem tene, verba sequentur" was his only maxim. When Appius Claudius, old, blind, and infirm, carried in a litter to the senate house, caused the senators to reject the proposals made by the skillful diplomat Cineas, the secret of his power lay in his own intense patriotism, which kindled theirs. This is the first published speech of which we have any record (280 B.C.).

M. Porcius Cato (234-149 B.C.) was the first Roman orator who made a practice of writing and publishing his speeches. Cicero tells us that there were one hundred and fifty of them extant in his day, and that no one read them. He characterizes them as "weighty in praise, bitter in

sarcasm, pointed in phrase, plain and simple in argument." The often quoted words with which at the close of his life Cato was wont to end every speech, whatever the subject, et censeo Karthaginem esse delendam, show the intensity of his patriotism, the tenacity of his purpose, and the nature of his power. There were many orators of this

period, but none of the first rank.

The younger Scipio and Laelius, who belonged to the next generation, though not the foremost among Roman orators, deserve mention in this sketch, because they were instrumental in introducing the study of the Greek orators as models for the imitation of their countrymen.

Sergius Sulpicius Galba (consul 144 B.C.), an orator of much vigor and vivacity, began to use artistic arrangement, with digressions for ornament, pathos, and information; and he was the first Roman orator who successfully applied rhetorical principles in the manner of the Greeks.

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and his brother Gaius, the famous tribunes, were distinguished orators as well as reformers. They brought in a much easier and freer manner of speaking, and a broader and more sympathetic oratory. Tiberius, with good natural gifts trained by a study of Greek masterpieces, was a man of blameless life, noble purpose, and enthusiasm combined with self-control. Many of those who disapproved his political course were constrained to respect and admire him. He was inspired by the consciousness of a noble mission, the defense of the poor against the rich, and the restoration of that industrious middle class of small farmers and free toilers, whom the disasters of the second Punic war, the greed of the wealthy owners of large estates, and the introduction of slave labor on a large scale had nearly ruined. Gaius, the