again in the Senate and began his celebrated series of orations against Antony with the First Philippic (Sept. 2). Once more he took an active part in politics, apparently assuming his old position as leader, and speaking with all the charm and effectiveness of his earlier days. But he had fallen upon evil times; arms could no longer yield to the gown, and it soon became clear that there could be no peace except by the complete victory of a single aspirant for the supremacy.

Octavianus at first joined with the Senate against Antony, but he soon broke with the constitutional authorities, and, in B.C. 43, formed with Antony and Lepidus the coalition known as the Second Triumvirate. A merciless proscription at once began. Octavianus had every reason to be grateful to Cicero, but he was of a cold and ungenerous nature, and when Antony demanded his death he made no objection. Cicero's name was accordingly placed on the list of proscribed citizens. Cicero was at this time at his Tusculan villa. He made a half-hearted attempt to escape from Italy, but was overtaken near his villa at Formia by the soldiers of the triumvirs, and met his death with firmness (Dec. 7, B.C. 43). Antony satisfied his hatred by indignities to the mangled remains.

The career of Cicero is a remarkable example of a sudden rise, followed by an utter collapse and fall. His rise was the natural result of his own ability, industry, and ambition; his fall was as naturally caused by his defects, coupled with his good qualities, a mixture that produced a certain weakness of character. Had he been less timid or less scrupulous, or, on the other hand, had he been more far-sighted, he might have remained on the pedestal to which he was proud to have raised himself and on which he was ambitious to stand. But the times needed a different kind of man, and others, far less worthy, but able and willing to cope with the contending forces in the state, supplanted him. One quality was particularly instru

mental both in his rise and his fall. He excelled in forcible

and witty abuse. He dearly loved a bitter jest, and he lived among a people that were constitutionally inclined to abusive language. No doubt it was this talent for invective that made him popular when it happened to be directed in accordance with the people's taste. But it also alienated his friends, and embittered his enemies. He was called a Scurra and a Cynic, and it was perhaps a pun that cost him the favor of Octavianus ; certainly it was his abuse of Antony and Fulvia that cost him his life. But he was the first orator of all time, a literary worker of the rarest gifts, and according to his lights a lover and servant of the state.

The following list gives the titles and subjects of all of Cicero's orations (except fragments) which have survived:

B.C. 81. Pro P. QUINCTIO: Defence of Quinctius in a prosecution by Sex. Nævius, to recover the profits of a partnership in some land in Gaul, inherited from his brother C. Quinctius.

B.C. 80. Pro SEX. ROSCIO AMERINO: Defence of Roscius on a charge of parricide brought by Erucius as professional prosecutor, at the instigation of Chrysogonus.

B.C. 76 (?). Pro Q. ROSCIO COMOEDO: Defence of the actor Roscius from the claim of C. Fannius Chærea to half the profits of certain lands taken as the value of a slave held by them in partnership, and killed by C. Flavius.

B.C. 72 (or 71). Pro M. TULLIO : Plea for damages for an assault made by a rival claimant on Tullius' estate.

B.C. 70.

In CAECILIUM ("Divinatio ") : Plea on the technical right of Cicero to conduct the prosecution against Verres.

In C. VERREM: Impeachment of Verres for plunder and oppression in Sicily. Six Orations. — (1) The general charge ("Actio Prima"); (2) De Praetura Urbana: earlier political crimes of Verres; (3) De Iurisdictione Siciliana: his administration in Sicily; (4) De Frumento: peculation and fraud as to the supplies of grain;

(5) De Signis: the plunder of works of art; (6) De Suppliciis : cruelties of his government.

B.C. 69. Pro M. FONTEIO: Defence of Fonteius' administration of Gaul during Pompey's campaign against Sertorius, about B.C. 75. Pro A. CAECINA: Defence against Æbutius of Cæcina's right to an estate received by inheritance from his wife Cæsennia, widow of a rich money-lender, M. Fulcinius.

B.C. 66.

Pro LEGE MANILIA, vel De IMPERIO CN. POMPEI: Defence of the proposal of Manilius to invest Pompey with the command of the war against Mithridates.

Pro A. CLUENTIO HABITO: Defence of Cluentius against the charge of poisoning his stepfather Oppianicus, brought by the younger Oppianicus, instigated by Sassia, the mother of Cluentius.

B.C. 63. De LEGE AGRARIA: Against the Agrarian Law of Rullus. Three orations: the first delivered in the Senate and the others before the people.

Pro C. RABIRIO: Defence of Rabirius on the charge of killing Saturninus, about B.C. 100.

In L. CATILINAM: On the Conspiracy of Catiline. Four orations: the first and last delivered in the Senate, the second and third before the people.

Pro L. MURENA: Defence of Murena on a charge of bribery brought by Sulpicius, the defeated candidate for the consulship. (Following previous orations on the same side by Hortensius and Crassus.)

B.C. 62. Pro P. CORNELIO SULLA: Defence of Sulla from the charge of sharing in Catiline's conspiracy.

Pro A. LICINIO ARCHIA; Defence of the claim of the poet Archias to Roman citizenship.

B.C. 59.

Pro L. VALERIO FLACCo: Defence of Flaccus on a charge of maladministration as proprætor in Asia.

B.C. 57.

POST REDITUM: Thanks for Cicero's recall from exile. Two orations: (1) In Senatu; (2) Ad Quirites.

Pro DOMO SUA: Appeal to the pontifices against the alienation of Cicero's estate by Clodius.

De HARUSPICUM RESPONSIS: Invective against the impieties of Clodius.

B.C. 56. Pro P. SESTIO: Defence of Sestius, a partisan of Cicero, on a charge of assault, the attack having been made on Sestius by the dependants and partisans of Clodius.

In P. VATINIUM ("Interrogatio "): A personal attack on Vatinius, one of the witnesses against Sestius.

Pro M. CAELIO: Defence of the character of Cælius (a dissolute young friend of Cicero) against a vindictive charge of stealing and poisoning, brought by Atratinus, at the instigation of Clodia.

De PROVINCIIS CONSULARIBUS: Advocating the recall of Piso and Gabinius, and the retaining of Cæsar in the proconsulate of Gaul.

Pro CORNELIO BALBO: Defence of Balbus (a citizen of Gades) in his right of Roman citizenship, granted by Pompey. B.C. 55. In L. CALPURNIUM PISONEM: Retaliation for an attack made by Piso after his return from the proconsulate of Macedonia. B.C. 54. Pro CN. PLANCIO: Defence of Plancius on the charge of corrupt political bargaining, brought by M. Junius Laterensis, the defeated candidate for ædile.

Pro C. RABIRIO POSTUMO: Defence of Rabirius, in a prosecution to recover money alleged to have been received from Ptolemy, King of Egypt, in corrupt partnership with Gabinius.

B.C. 52. Pro T. AnnIO MILONE: Defence of Milo on the charge of the murder of Clodius.

B.C. 46. Pro M. MARCELLO: Speech of thanks to Cæsar for the pardon of Marcellus.

Pro Q. LIGARIO: Petition of pardon for Ligarius, charged with conducting the war in Africa against Cæsar.

B,C. 45. Pro REGE Deiotaro: Defence of Deiotarus, King of Galatia, charged with attempting the murder of Cæsar.

B.C. 44-43. In M. ANTONIUM: Orationes Philippicae XIV. — B.C. 44. (1) (Sept. 2) Reply to an invective of Antony: exhortation to the consuls Antony and Dolabella; (2) Reply to a bitterer invective: a review of Antony's public and private life; (3) (Dec. 20) Urging the support of Octavianus (Augustus) and D. Brutus against Antony, now in Hither Gaul; (4) (Dec. 20) Exposition to the people of the acts of the Senate, and praise of D. Brutus, B.C. 43; (5) (Jan.

unfairly treated by the extreme senatorial party, allied himself with the democratic leaders, Cæsar and Crassus, in a coalition often called the First Triumvirate. As a result, the Senate became for a time almost powerless, and everything was in the hands of the popular party. The next year, Cæsar, as consul, procured the passage of an iniquitous law for dividing the fertile and populous territory of Campania among needy citizens of Rome. Cicero refused to serve on the board appointed to execute this law. Thus he not only exasperated the mob, but brought down upon himself the resentment of the triumvirs, who, though two of them, Cæsar and Pompey, still professed to be his personal friends, refused to protect him against the attacks of his enemies. Accordingly, in B.C. 58, Clodius, then tribune,1 brought forward a law that whoever had put to death a Roman citizen, without trial, "should be denied the use of fire and water (the Roman formula for banishment). This bill was obviously aimed at Cicero's action in the case of the Catilinarians. Cicero at once took alarm, and after appealing in vain to the consuls of the year, L. Calpurnius Piso and A. Gabinius, as well as to Pompey, left Rome about March 20, just as the affair was coming to blows. Immediately after his departure, Clodius procured the passage of a special bill against him, forbidding him, by name, the use of fire or water anywhere within four hundred miles of Rome. At the same time his house on the Palatine and his Tusculan3 villa were pillaged and destroyed by a mob. Upon receiving news of these proceedings, Cicero prepared to leave Italy altogether. He embarked from Brundisium, April 29, and arrived at Thessa

1 In order to be eligible for this office, Clodius, by birth a patrician, had procured his adoption into a plebeian family. His express purpose in the whole transaction was to accomplish the ruin of Cicero, with whom he was incensed on account of evidence which Cicero had once given against him. 2 See note on Cat. i., sect. 1, p. 99, 1. 4.

3 Cf. note on Plunder of Syracuse, sect. 12, p. 54, 1. 27.