B.C. 45 (or 44). TIMAEUS. (Free translation from Plato.) 45-44. DE NATURA DEORUM, 3 Books. 45 (or 44). DE SENECTUTE (Cato Maior). 44. DE DIVINATIONE, 2 Books. 44. DE OFFICIIS, 3 Books. (A treatise on practical ethics.) 44 (?). DE OPTIMO GENERE ORATORUM. (On the Attic and the Asiatic style.) 62-43. EPISTOLAE AD FAMILIARES (Ad Diversos), 16 Books. 106. Birth of Cicero (Jan. 3). Birth of Pompey (Sept. 30). Marius finishes the Jugurthine War. 102. Birth of Quintus Cicero. at Aquæ Sextiæ. The Teutones defeated by Marius JOI. The Cimbri defeated by Marius at Vercellæ. 100 (perhaps 102). Birth of Cæsar (July 12). 99. Death of Saturninus and Glaucia. 91. Murder of M. Livius Drusus. Social (or Marsic) War begins. 90. Cicero assumes the toga virilis. 89. Cicero serves under Cn. Pompeius Strabo in the Social War. 88. First Civil War begins. Flight of Marius. First Mithridatic War begins (ends 84). Massacre of Roman citizens by Mithridates. Sulla leaves Rome for the East. 87. Conflict between Cinna and Octavius. Marius returns to Rome. Massacre of the senatorial party. 86. Marius consul for the seventh time. Death of Marius. Rome in the hands of Cinna. 84. Sulla ends the First Mithridatic War. Murder of Cinna. 83. Sulla returns to Italy. Second Mithridatic War (ends 82). 82. Sulla overthrows the Marian party. The Proscription (ends June 1, 81). Sulla appointed Dictator. B.C. 81. 80. Reforms of Sulla: the courts reorganized, etc. Cicero's Defence of P. Quinctius (his first extant oration). Sulla's constitution goes into effect. The courts re-opened. Cicero's Defence of Roscius of Ameria. Pompey celebrates his first triumph. 79. Sulla resigns the dictatorship. 78. Cicero in Athens and Asia. Lepidus and Catulus. 77. Cicero returns from Greece. earlier). 76. War with Sertorius (ends 72). 75. Cicero quæstor in Sicily. 74. 73. 72. 70. 69. 68. 67. Cicero goes to Greece. Death of Sulla. Civil War of Third Mithridatic War begins. He marries Terentia (perhaps Lucullus goes to the East. Cicero returns from Sicily to Rome. War with Spartacus (ends with the death of Spartacus, 71). End of the Sertorian War in Spain (Pompey defeats First consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Cicero's Impeach ment of Verres. Courts restored to the equites. Tribuni Cicero curule ædile. Lucullus defeats Tigranes at Tigranocerta. Glabrio appointed to supersede Lucullus. Gabinian Law. 66. Cicero prætor. His Defence of Cluentius. The Piratic War successfully ended by Pompey. Manilian Law (advocated by Cicero). Pompey takes command against Mithridates. 65. Birth of Cicero's only son, Marcus. First Conspiracy of Cati line. 63. Cicero and C. Antonius consuls. 62. 61. Second Conspiracy of Catiline suppressed. Four Orations against Catiline. Birth of Augustus (Sept. 23). Return of Pompey from the East. Cicero's Defence of Archias. Trial of Clodius for violating the mysteries. Cicero's strife with him in the Senate. B.C. 60. The First Triumvirate (coalition of Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus). 59. First consulship of Cæsar (with Bibulus). Clodius is chosen tribune. 58. Tribunate of Clodius. His legislation. Cicero driven into exile. Beginning of Cæsar's conquest of Gaul (finished in 51). 57. Cicero recalled from exile (law passed Aug. 4). 56. Cicero's Defence of Sestius. 55. Second consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Cæsar's command in Gaul renewed. His first invasion of Britain. 54. Cæsar's second invasion of Britain. 53. Cicero made augur. Crassus and his army destroyed by the Parthians (Battle of Carrhæ). 52. Clodius killed (Jan. 20). Burning of the Senate-house. Pompey elected consul without colleague (Feb. 25). Cicero's Defence of Milo. 51. Cicero proconsul in Cilicia. His successful campaign against the mountaineers. 50. Cicero returns to Italy. 49. Cæsar crosses the Rubicon. Beginning of the Great Civil War (ends 46). Cicero's efforts for peace. Pompey retires to Epirus, where Cicero joins him. Cæsar acquires Spain. Cæsar dictator. 48. Battle of Pharsalia. Death of Pompey. Cæsar in Africa (Alexandrine War). Cæsar re-appointed dictator. 47. Cæsar returns to Rome. He pardons Cicero. He sails for Africa against the Pompeians. 46. Battle of Thapsus. Cato kills himself at Utica. Cæsar returns to Rome, undisputed master of the Empire. He is 45. Cæsar defeats the sons of Pompey Cicero's Oration for Mar (Battle of Munda). Death Tusculan Questions, etc. 43. Cicero's Philippics V.-XIV. The Mutina War. The Second Triumvirate (Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus). Proscription. Murder of Cicero (Dec. 7). 42. Battle of Philippi. II. ROMAN ORATORY. FROM the earliest times of which we have historical knowledge, up to the establishment of the Empire as the result of Civil War, the constitution of Rome was republican, in so far that all laws were passed and all magistrates elected by a vote of all the citizens. The principle of "representation," however, which to us seems inseparable from republican institutions, was unknown to the Romans. All laws were passed, and all officers were elected, at what we should call a mass meeting of the entire body of citizens, convened at the central seat of government. The absence of newspapers, also, made a distinct difference between ancient political conditions and those of our own times. Conversation and public addresses were the only means of disseminating political ideas. even the scope of public addresses was much limited; for meetings could be called by a magistrate only, and could be addressed by only such persons as the presiding magistrate would permit. Obviously, under such a régime, public speaking, which even now has a distinct potency in state affairs, must have been far more efficacious as a political instrument than it is to-day. To this must be added the fact that under Roman polity career. 2 the only means of social advancement was success in a political The Senate, the Roman peerage,1 consisted practically only of persons who had been elected to one or more of the three graded magistracies, quæstorship, prætorship, consulship (the cursus honorum). Hence every ambitious Roman, of high or low estate, had to become a politician and follow the regular course of office-holding. The curule magistrates were at once generals, judges, and statesmen. To achieve success, therefore, a politician had to show ability in all of these directions. Occasionally, to be sure, a man succeeded by virtue of a single talent, like Marius, who owed his advancement solely to his valor and military skill; but such instances were rare. Next to military fame, the strongest recommendation to the favor of the people was oratorical ability. Then, as now, the orator's power to move the multitude in public affairs was the readiest means of advancement. Further, political prosecutions, and private suits prompted by political motives, were of the commonest occurrence, and these afforded an eloquent advocate abundant opportunity to make himself known and to secure the favor of large bodies of supporters. Again, the Senate was a numerous and somewhat turbulent body, always more or less divided in a partisan sense; and, though it had no legislative functions, it still exercised a very strong influence on politics. To be able to sway this large assembly by force of oratory was of great moment to an aspiring Roman. Finally, though the contention for office ceased with the consulship, there still continued among the consulares, who formed almost a distinct class in society and public life, a vehement rivalry to be regarded as the leading man in the state. For all these reasons, the art of oratory was perhaps more highly esteemed and of greater practical value in the later period of the Roman Republic than at any other time in the history of the world.3 2 See p. liv. 1 See p. 1. 3 Cf. Cicero's remark on p. 199 (ll. 1–3). |