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of such a body was irresistible. It is true that it could not enforce its recommendations, but we can easily see that its advice would not be lightly disregarded, or its good opinion forfeited, by magistrates who for one year only, and with little previous experience, were charged with the enormous responsibility of government.

The senate took cognizance of all affairs of administration, but it concerned itself chiefly with foreign affairs, finance, and religion. In these its second source of influence was felt, its permanence. It was the only organized body in the state that possessed a continuous knowledge 97 of public affairs. To it therefore the foreign nations sent embassies; with it they made treaties. Appointing as it did all promagistrates with imperium (§ 73), it virtually directed war and concluded peace, although constitutionally 98 this was the right of the comitia centuriata (§ 31).

Its

control over the finances was due to the interval between the abdication of one board of censors (§ 56) and the election of their successors. In this period of from two and one half to three and one half years there was at all times money to receive and to pay out on orders and contracts, with which the magistrates for the time had had nothing to do. To the senate, therefore, as the one continuous body, fell the right to direct financial matters during this period (§ 58); and to it the next board would naturally look for advice in all questions of taxation and expendi99 ture. In religious matters its influence was due to the fact that the priests (§ 80), as such, had no magisterial powers, and had to act through the regular magistrates. The influence of the senate over them has been explained 100 in § 95. In all these matters, and in the countless others on which the senate acted, it must be remembered that it ruled wholly by moral influence. At any time a magistrate might become recalcitrant, and carry a question, in spite of the senate, to the only constitutionally authoritative bodies, the comitia. In such a case the senate

could only oppose its influence to his, and, if the people were on his side, either give way, or try to tire out the opposition by the many means of delay that could be practised in the comitia (§§ 39, 89).

MEETINGS OF THE SENATE. The senate came together 101 at the call of any qualified magistrate (consul, praetor, tribune), who, by virtue of having summoned it, was its president for the time. It was the only deliberative assembly in Rome, i.e., the only one in which debate was allowed. Of course it could discuss only such questions 102 as the president laid before it; but among the twenty magistrates who possessed the right, it could always find one who would ask its advice about the business it wished to discuss. The time and place for meeting were always 103 named in the call, which was made either through the praecones (§ 71), or by a written notice posted in the forum. The senate had no fixed hour or place for meeting, although the time was usually early in the day, because sunset put an end to all deliberations, and the place had to be a templum (§ 86). The auspices were always taken. before the meeting began (§ 84).

The president laid (referre) the matters about which he 10+ desired "advice" (§ 102), before the senate in general terms, and in such order as he pleased. No one could make a motion without his permission, and no one could give an opinion unless called upon by him. He might at once demand a vote; but if debate was allowed he called upon the members to express their views in a regular order, sanctioned by ancient custom, giving his own opinion at any point he pleased. The first to be called upon 105 was the Princeps Senatus, an honorary title given by the censors to the senator (generally a patrician) whom they deemed most worthy. After him came the consulares, praetorii, and aedilicii, i.e., such members as sat in the senate by virtue of having held these offices. If, how- 106 ever, the debate occurred between the time of the annual

elections and the inauguration of the successful candidates, these magistrates-elect (designati) took precedence over ex-magistrates of the same rank. It is a matter of dispute whether or not the pediarii (those who had held no curule (§ 45, Iv. b) office) had the ius sententiae, "right 107 of debate." The president might, however, vary the regular order, and thus honor or slight any senator by calling him out of turn, or by passing him over altogether. As each senator was called upon he could give his opinion in full (sententiam dicere), or simply express his agreement with a previous speaker (verbo assentiri). He might also include in his remarks any other matters that he pleased, and this made it easier than now to prevent action by talking against time (diem dicendo consumere) until sunset 108 (§ 103). The final vote was taken by division (discessio). If several conflicting sententiae had been expressed, the magistrate presiding put such as he pleased to the house, and they were voted upon singly until one received a majority of the members present. All present, except actual magistrates, were obliged to vote, but there was no

109 rule as to a quorum. When a sententia had been adopted, it was written out, after the adjournment of the senate, by the scribae (§ 70), in the presence of the president and of its principal supporters, who attested its genuineness by their signatures. There are frequent complaints of forged sententiae.

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DECREES OF THE SENATE. The senate had no power to pass laws it could merely express its opinion in the form of advice to the magistrate who convoked it. This advice might be rejected by that magistrate, or, even if he adopted it, it might be vetoed by any magistrate equal or superior to him (§ 72). If it successfully ran the gantlet of these vetoes, it was taken for granted that it would find no sufficient opposition in the comitia (where only laws could be passed), and was promulgated as a senatus consultum, 111 "ordinance of the senate." If vetoed by a superior magis

trate, it was put forth as auctoritas senatus, "the deliberate utterance of the senate," having all the moral weight attaching to such a body as that described in § 94, but no binding force with either magistrates or people. If its friends 112 looked upon the opposition to it as capricious or weak, proceeding, e. g., from the personal feeling of the individual who vetoed it, they brought to bear upon him every possi ble influence and argument to induce him to withdraw his opposition. If he remained firm they might still get a superior magistrate, if there was such, to bring it before the comitia, with the hope of getting it passed by the people as a regular and authoritative law.

ABBREVIATIONS AND REFERENCES.

ABBREVIATIONS.

THE abbreviations are for the most part those with which the student has become familiar in his Caesar. The following may require explanation; Caes. Caesar de Bello Gallico, cited by book, chapter, and smaller section; Sall. Cat. Sallusti (86-35) Bellum Catilinae, cited by chapter and smaller section; P. Preble's revision of the grammar of Andrews and Stoddard; Ep. epistle, letter; Exc. excursus; Int. = introduction or introductory; Sal. = salutation; O. O. oratio obliqua, indirect discourse; O. R. = oratio recta, direct discourse.

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REFERENCES.

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References to the Grammars ask attention to such parts only of the main article as are followed by a mark of punctuation. E.g., "A. 331, e; means - read all of article 331 and section e under it; while "A. 331 e; 99 means read section e under article 331, but not article 331 itself.

References to the Introductory Matter give the sections to be read (marked §) and the page (p.), on which the section begins. References to the Excursuses give the number of the Excursus and the paragraph (§) to be read. The page may be found from the Table of Contents.

References to the Orations give the Title of the oration, the smaller section, and the number of the line of the larger section in which the word in question is found. The title is always abbreviated, I., II., III., IV., meaning the first, second, etc., oration against Catilina, Mur., Sull., Sest., Mil., the orations for Murena, Sulla, Sestius, or Milo. E.g., in the note on page 119, line 1 "I. 16. 38" means -line 38 in paragraph 16 of the first oration against Catilina. In references to words in other chapters of the same oration, the Title is omitted and the sign § is put before the number of the paragraph. E.g., in the note on page 82, line 5 "§ 3. 24" means - the 24th line in paragraph 3 of this oration. In references to words in the same chapter (not necessarily in the same paragraph) the Title and paragraph are omitted, and the abbreviation 1. is placed before the number of the line. E.g., in the note on page 80, line 6" see on 1. 4" means- read the note on line 4 of this chapter.

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References to the Letters are made in the same way, except that the lines of each letter are numbered throughout. The Letters are distinguished from the Orations by the abbreviation Ep., and each letter is denoted by its number in this collection, printed in Roman capitals. The shorter letters are not divided into paragraphs, and in such cases, instead of a paragraph number, the abbreviation 1. is placed before the number of the line.

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