7. He had read no poetry, and knew nothing of oratory,

nullum poëtam legerat, nullum oratorem noverat. ff. Nouns, especially abstracts, are less common in Latin than in English. Hence abstract qualities, if connected with the subject, must often be rendered by adjectives or participles; if connected with the predicate, by adverbs. Names of actions (verbal abstracts) are expressed by verbs, colored if necessary by adverbs or adverbial phrases.,

g. Even the few abstract nouns found in Latin are constantly made concrete, especially by using them in the plural: as,

1. The life of all, vitae omnium.

2. The immortality of the soul, aeternitas animorum. 3. The cold of the winters, frigora hiberna.

4. Some cases of superiority, quaedam excellentiae. 5. Sharing in misfortune (of several persons), societates

calamitatum.

h. The two languages often differ in their modes of expressing the Degree of a quality. Thus, as much or equally is often rendered by no less; and conversely, less by not so much, more by so much as no other, and the like, according to convenience of expression in the particular case.

i. Certain literal forms of speech are frequent in Latin, presenting the object as it appears to the eye or comes at first hand before the thought. Thus,

1. They refresh themselves with food and sleep, corpora cibo somnoque curant.

2. To relieve one from superstition or disease, aut religione animos aut corpora morbis levare.

3.

In the face of the world, ante omnium oculos.

4. A musical ear detects very slight discords, musicorum aures vel minima dissona sentiunt.

5. I never lose sight of him, numquam ab eo oculos deicio. So

7. The tribunes were especially alarmed, praecipuus pavor tribunos invaserat. (Here the personification adds to the vigor of the expression; so, contemptor animus, tiro exercitus, &c.). ii. The same tendency to literalness is seen in the use of a second noun ("hendiadys "), where English uses an adjective, a phrase, or a compound (compare Part I. p. 5). Thus,

I. Rational instruction, ratio et doctrina.

2. An eye-witness, spectator et testis.

3. A shameful disaster, ignominia et calamitas.

4. Art-culture, artificium et expolitio.

j. English abounds in effete metaphors - rhetorical expressions (noun or verb) — which have lost their force and become mere conventional phrases: these must often be expressed by some simple word, or wholly omitted, and the bare substance of the thought given in Latin (compare l, m, below). Thus,

1. Homer flourished many years before, Homerus multis ante annis fuit (also, floruit).

2. Virtue in solitude could not reach its highest development, virtus solitaria ad ea quae summa sunt non potuit pervenire.

Examples may be found in such nouns as object, point, feature, circumstance, instance, capacity, person, expression, elements; in the verbs observe, remark, manage, continue, discuss, avail one's self, assure, represent, allude, qualify, enhance, convey, embrace, exist, constitute, deliver, succeed in, manage to; and particularly in adverbial and prepositional phrases, such as regarding, concerning, with the view of (UT), in reference to (AD), on account of (OB, PROPTER), in spite of all that (TAMEN), &c.

k. Latin often prefers an abstract noun to an adjective; thus making the quality the main thing, and (as it were) embodying it. Thus,

1. Isocrates had many pupils of high rank, Isocrates nobilitate discipulorum floruit.

2. It takes much water to quench a furious blaze, vis flammae aquae multitudine opprimitur.

3. Orators are and always have been few, magna oratorum est semperque fuit paucitas.

4. A gloomy winter was followed by a sickly summer, tristem hiemem pestibus aestas excepit.

5. Weak men were overcome with superstition (i.e. because they were weak), superstitio hominum imbecillitatem occupavit.

6. When the pleasant spring-time is past, then come summer and autumn, praeterita verni temporis suavitate, aestas venit et auctumnus.

7. The simplicity of Latin requires that force or color shall be given to an expression but once, whether in subject or predicate ; and that neutral or unemphatic phrases shall be used in other parts of the clause (compare f and h). Thus,

1. Immense indignation prevailed, indignatio ingens erat. 2. But how vast the privilege, for the soul to live! At illud quanti est, animum vivere !

3. In both cases he acted with dignity, utrumque egit graviter.

4. All incidents of life which happen in accordance with nature, omnia quae secundum naturam fiunt. 5. For even these tributes are honorable, haec enim ipsa sunt honorabilia.

To the same habit of mind may be referred the frequent use of such colorless words as ars, genus, locus, ratio, res, sententia, studium, vis; afficio, ago, capio, facio, habeo, possum, sum, versor (see Lexicon under these words).

Ul. An English sentence is often filled out with words not strictly necessary to the sense, but inserted for fulness or rotundity of expression. In general, it is unclassical to express any thing which is obvious from the context, or to repeat what has once been said in other words in the same clause or phrase (compare 7).

m. English narrative abounds in varied descriptive phrases alluding to an idea or person once expressed: these must be omitted in Latin; or, if something is necessary to prevent ambiguity, a simple pronoun is used. Proper names are repeated, but not so often as in English. Thus, the words italicized in the following extract (recounting the death of the elder Pliny) would be omitted in a Latin version of the passage, or else expressed by pronouns :

"As the shades of evening gathered, the brightness of the flames became more striking; but, to calm the panic of those around him, the philosopher assured them that they arose from cottages on the slope, which the alarmed natives had abandoned to the descending flakes of fire. . . . The sea was agitated, and abandoned by every bark. Pliny, wearied and perplexed, refused to stir farther; while his companions, all but two body-slaves, fled in terror. Some, who looked back in their flight, affirmed that the old man rose once with the help of his attendants, but immediately fell again, overpowered, as it seemed, with the deadly vapors."

n. But if the allusive or descriptive word is essential to the idea to be conveyed, it must be given outright in a clause or special expression: as,

ut

But the veteran could not be deceived: ille autem · qui esset rei bellicae peritissimus — illudi non potuit.

o. The tendency in Latin to a direct form of statement requires that the main idea should be asserted directly in the main clause, and not hidden in a relative clause, participle, or adverb (compare v). The necessary emphasis is to be given by position.

For

1. A fresh blow came, that crushed the city, clades nova civitatem adflixit.

2. It is these that delight in flattery, hos delectat adsentatio.

3. You are the very man I was looking for, te ipsum quaerebam.

II. STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE.

THE best English writers give a connected story or argument in short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and a logical relation among all its parts is carefully indicated, so that the whole forms a compact group.

But gloomy silence and voiceless sorrow had paralyzed the minds of the inhabitants. For very dread they forgot what they were leaving behind, what they were carrying with them. With no fixed idea, and inquiring every man of his neighbor, they were at one moment standing at their thresholds, at another wandering restlessly through their homes to see the end.

For example,

Sed silentium triste ac tacita maestitia ita deflixit omnium animos, ut, prae metu obliti quid relinquerent quid secum ferrent, deficiente consilio, rogitantesque alii alios, nunc in liminibus starent, nunc errabundi domos suas, ultimum illud visuri, pervagarentur.

p. In particular, so much of a statement as can be so treated, with its attendant circumstances, modifications, &c., is put into a

single complex sentence, called a Period (§ 346. a-d; compare s). Thus,

Qui cum, multis circa finitimos populos legationibus terra marique nequicquam missis, nisi quod ex Etruria haud ita multum frumenti advectum est, nullum momentum annonae fecisset; et, revolutus ad dispensationem inopiae, profiteri cogendo frumentum et vendere quod usu menstruo superesset, fraudandoque parte diurni cibi servitia, criminando inde et obiciendo irae populi frumentarios, acerba inquisitione aperiret magis quam levaret inopiam; multi ex plebe spe amissa potius quam ut cruciarentur trahendo animam, capitibus obvolutis se in Tiberim praecipitaverunt.

Here the principal fact expressed in the main clause is, that many of the people drowned themselves rather than submit to slow starvation; while the cruel policy that drove them to it is described in subordinate clauses. In English it might be told as follows:

He sent a number of embassies by land and sea to the surrounding nations, but effected no result beyond the importation of an insignificant amount of corn from Etruria, and produced no movement in the market. On applying himself to the administration of the meagre supplies, he compelled people to make a report of the corn they held, and to offer for sale all that exceeded the necessary supply of their wants for a month. He robbed the slaves of part of their daily rations, and proceeded to libel the corn-merchants, and expose them to the fury of the populace. By this galling inquisitorial policy he revealed rather than relieved the distress. Many of the lower orders, in utter despair, bandaged the eyes and threw themselves into the Tiber, rather than endure the torment of a prolonged existence.

q. Even when long periods are not used, still the logical connection is indicated by the use of connecting Relatives (see § 201. e); or (99) by Correlative words and Particles, especially idem, itaque, autem, enim, vero, quidem.

r. But, in coördinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are omitted oftener than in English (asyndeton); the connection being made clear by the Position of words and by Antithesis.

s. Of two coördinate clauses with and, the less important is merged in the other by the aid of participles and subordinate phrases. In such cases a change of subject should be avoided.

t. A change of subject should be marked by the introduction of a pronoun, if the new subject has been already mentioned in the preceding sentence. But (tt) the needless use of pronouns may be avoided by change of structure.