estimating his remuneration. In order to earn a fair | out by appropriate marks; and having gone through week's wages he ought to be able, while composing, the sheet, he writes upon the author's copy, at the to pick up at the rate of 2000 letters per hour, which s at the rate of 24,000 letters per day of 12 hours, and 144,000 per week. In picking up each letter the and has to traverse at least 6 inches on an average aad back, and this exertion long continued in a standing posture (which is necessary for freedom of action) becomes extremely laborious. When it is also consiered that the air of the printing-office is generally of the worst description, contaminated as it is by the fumes of printers' ink, grease and moisture from the steam-presses in the basement; vitiated by the respiration of several hundred human beings, and by the combastion of numerous gas-lights; considering, too, that some of the largest printing-offices are in the most crowded parts of the metropolis,-we have altogether as large a collection of noxious influences as may generally be found to concur in a factory in destroying the health of the persons who spend so large a portion of their lives within its walls. Our experience extends to a considerable number of the large London printingoffices; and we are sorry to have to state, that scarcely in any one that we are acquainted with, has any attempt been made to diminish that monster evilbad air-by an efficient system of ventilation. If ordinary means were taken to let out the foul air and provide proper openings for the admission of the fresh, many of the objections to which we refer would be mitigated or removed; the men would improve in health and longevity; and the master would have the satisfaction of knowing that he had done his duty to those persons, who, while they serve him, are at the same time committed to his charge, and he is to a certain extent morally responsible for their welfare. We have no reason to hope that these observations will produce any useful result; but it is nevertheless our duty to make them, and to state distinctly that, next to intemperance, nothing is more destructive to health than the respiration of vitiated or contaminated air. When the two forms of the sheet are removed from the imposing-stone they are conveyed to a hand-press, and a proof of the sheet is pulled. This proof is taken to the first reader or corrector of the press, who folds the sheet, examines the signatures, the folios, and the running-heads; sees that the pages have been properly imposed, that the chapters are correctly numbered, &c. He then compares the sheet with the author's copy, sees that underlined words are set up in italics, that the proper capitals are used, and that the work is done in a workmanlike manner. He then calls the reading-boy, who reads the copy aloud as rapidly as words can well be uttered, without much attention to the sense. The first reader being himself a practical compositor, his experienced eye enables him to detect every trifling error, such as would pass quite unnoticed by a person not in the trade; as, for example, whether a letter from a wrong fount had got into the fount used by the compositor; such a mistake is corrected in the proof by drawing the pen through the wrong letter, and writing w.f. for "wrong fount" opposite to it in the margin. Other mistakes are also pointed VOL. II. exact word, the commencement, signature, and folio, of the succeeding sheet, together with the figure for the next wood-engraving, if the work be illustrated by numbered wood-cuts. He then returns the sheet by the reading-boy to the compositors, who first examine the corrections, and gather up from their cases the words, letters, and corrections marked in the margin, and proceed to the imposing-stones, to which the forms are now returned, and unlocking them, they lift up with a blunt bodkin each line requiring correction, draw out the wrong letter, or word, and insert the right one, at the same time adjusting the spaces so as to allow for the increased or diminished fulness of the line. Should a word or several words have been carelessly omitted, or a word be inserted twice over, it may be necessary to overrun a large number of lines to the end of the paragraph, to make room for the insertion or to adjust the spacing. Should a sentence have been omitted, its proper insertion may require the overrunning of pages instead of lines. All this consumes a good deal of time, and indeed the overrunning is generally reckoned as equal to half the composing; that is, it takes half the time to overrun that is occupied in setting up the type in the first instance. The errors being corrected, (and sometimes new errors introduced in the process, the eradication of which requires much subsequent care,) another proof is pulled, which, with the original proof, is transferred to the first reader, who compares one with the other to see that his marks have been properly attended to: if not, he returns the proof to the compositors. But if he is satisfied, the clean proof is sent to the second reader, who subjects it to an intellectual as well as technical revision; it is read once more against the copy, further corrections are made, and defects in the author's style and meaning are queried. There are few literary men who would not admit the value of the services thus rendered by the second reader; and the Editor takes this opportunity of expressing his grateful thanks to those gentlemen who for many years past have read his proofs, and assisted him in making his meaning clear. The technical corrections in the second proof being made, a clean proof is pulled for the author; queries are inserted in ink, and this proof, together with the copy, is sent to the author. Notwithstanding the care that has been bestowed upon the proof, the author sometimes finds his writing to have been misread and consequently his meaning strangely misinterpreted. Sometimes, however, the blunders in the proof escape even the author's parental eye, and regarding the proof of his work with the fond partiality of a parent, he has a keen appreciation of all the beauties, but is positively blind to the faults and defects of his work. Caleb Whiteford has published an amusing collection of "Mistakes of the Press." D'Israeli, also, in his "Curiosities of Literature," has given a list of some of the more celebrated errors which have passed through large editions of wellknown works, and have even caused such works to be I I wont ons by book colectors, and valed for their ders. This te "Vinegar B.se," as ts ris a cancary in a way on account of the "Purine of the vinegard" being made the "Parable of the near." Iere are many order such bocks. Some of the most curious bunders, bocwever, occar nary pros. For example, in the editor's ***. Masia of Natural Posophy," pub1939 the shapter on The Telescope," at 39. sue forow.oz passare occurs as it was written receved from any nous body is not to se sondered as a whole, and coming from the fee, but as a part, and made up of a great aner of wates of ray-one bundle proceeding fnary datact polat of the u.nous body." When the aor received his proof the word marked naca was printed rags. In the present Cyclopædia wne remarkane binders have also occurred in the antor's proofs. For example, in the article IBOs the foowing passage, as written by the editor, ran ths. In the mods left by the decomposition of snes and madrepores, the shapes of which are amed by the minera:," &c., the word in italics was printed and-refus. In the article LEAD it is rated that "protoie of lead melts at a red heat, and in this state attacks silica with ease, pene traag an earthen crucible in a few minutes." In the proof the words with ease were printed with rage. In a reference from OBLIQUE-ARCH to SKEW-BRIDGE the proof had "See KEW-BRIDGE." Errors of this kind show how necessary it is for the author or editor to be careful and watchful in reading his proofs, and comparing the revises with the corrected proofs. Some of the early printers justly prided themselves on the correctness of the editions which they issued. Thus Aldus (the inventor of the Italic and the improver of the Roman letter, who established a printingoffice at Venice in 1496) considered it his chief duty to correct every sheet; and so busy was he with this employment and the multifarious business of his office, that he declared in one of his letters that he could scarcely take food or strengthen his stomach owing to the multiplicity and pressure of business; "meanwhile, with both hands occupied, and surrounded by pressmen clamorous for work, there is scarcely time even to blow one's nose." His son and grandson sustained his reputation, and the Aldine editions are much prized for their accuracy. One remarkable feature in these editions is the absence of points and stops in the title-page, a peculiarity which is imitated in the so-called Aldine editions of the poets published a few years ago. When the author has corrected his proof, and returned it to the printer, the author's corrections are made, and charged for extra; and as the extent of these corrections depends upon the author, and vary in every page, the charge for the same is subject to considerable variations. This is one of the most unsatisfactory parts of printing, and often brings the author, the printer, and publisher into disagreeable collision. If the author's corrections are numerous, a second author's proof, called a rerise, is sent to him; and if the author be a gentleman of uncertain temper or caress r. or should happen to be assay critica ville reading his proof or revise, he may introd.ce sun extensive insertions and correctices, as to make the ecst for correction equal or even exceed that for composing. When, however, the author is satsted with the first, second, third, &e. revise, he marks it "For Press," with the date, and returns it to the printer. The "Press Proof,' as it is called, is coce more read with a view to weed cut any remaining technical errors, to correct the spacing, to take cat defective letters, &c.; and at length, al corrections being made, the printer marks on the procf the number of copies to be printed, and sends it to the press-room. There are various other details respecting the manarement of proofs, which are of too technical a character to be of interest to the general reader. These are better learned from experience than from books, and are moreover exceptions to the general practice such as we have described it. SECTION IV.-THE PRINTING-PRESS. The earliest form of printing-press was nothing more than an ordinary screw-press, with a contrivar.ce for running the inked form of types under the screw. With such a press, printing was a slow and laborious operation: the screw was brought down upon the form with a dead pull, to the great danger of injuring the faces of the letters. This press was greatly improved by Willem Jansen Blaew, a mathematical instrument-maker of Amsterdam. He printed many books and maps constructed from the observations of Tycho Brahe, who for many years employed him as an assistant, and for making his instruments. Blaew's press continued in general use up to the beginning of the present century. It is represented is fitted by tenons at the ends into mortices | ment. They are formed of 3 slips of thin wood, tween the cheeks. The head his suspended from with a headband or top slip of thin iron. The two the cap e by 2 screw-bolts 8s, and in the centre of tympans are so constructed, that the one represented is fixed by 2 short bolts a brass nut containing as the upper one in the cut, shall lie within the a bollow screw or worm for receiving the upper exterior one, to which it is fitted by iron hinges to nd of the great vertical spindle or screw s, by the cell. Between the two tympans are placed 2 or which the pressure is produced. The third bar 3 folds of blanket, for the purpose equalizing the f, called the shelf or till, is intended to guide and pressure of the platten upon the surface of the types. krep steady a part called the hose h', which contains A square frame of thin iron, called the frisket, tt, is the spindle and screw. The next cross-bar w, called attached by hinges to the headband of the exterior the winter, is for supporting the carriage. The tympan, and is made to fall down upon the tympan, spindle and screw is a strong vertical bar of iron so as to enclose the sheet of paper which is to be terminated at the lower end with steel: its upper printed between them. The tympan and frisket end is formed into a small screw, which works in the being thus folded down, lie flat on the form of types, small brass nut of the head; and in the eye of the and the carriage containing them is run beneath the spindle, just below the upper extremity, is fixed the platten, so that when the handle H is pulled, the handle H, by which the press is worked. Under the platten presses upon one-half of the form of types: spindle is the platten p, which imparts the pressure the carriage is then run further in with the other to the paper. It is suspended from the point of the half of the form, and in this way, by means of two spindle by the hose h', a square frame or block of separate pulls, the impression of the types is made wood which passes through the shelves. The lower upon the paper. By turning the winch w', the end of the spindle passes through the hose, and rests carriage is withdrawn from beneath the platten, and by its point in a plug fixed in a brass cup supplied the tympan, on being lifted up round its hinges, rests with oil, which is again fixed to an iron plate let into obliquely against the gallows. The frisket is then the top of the platten. When the pressman pulls lifted up on its hinges, and supported by a slip of the handle I, he turns the spindle, the round of wood descending from the ceiling, and the printed which moves in its screw box, and by its descent sheet is taken out, and a clean one put in. Every brings down the platten, which thus presses on the time the carriage is run out, the type is inked by paper lying on the form of type. The platten is sus- means of two bulky inking-balls, consisting of two pended from the spindle, and rises up again with it by circular pieces of pelt, leather, or canvass covered means of a garter or fillet of iron screwed to the hose, with composition, stuffed with wool, and nailed to and entering into a groove round the upper end of the wooden stocks. One of these balls b is represented spindle. The platten is hung truly level by 4 threads in the ball-rack, and the other b' on the ball-block, passing from its 4 corners to the 4 corners of the which contains the ink heaped up in the angle, but lower part of the hose. The form of type F, is con- brought gradually down to a thin layer in front of veyed under the platten by means of a carriage c c, the block. which is supported on a horizontal wooden frame, the About the commencement of the present century fore part being sustained by a forestay, while the back several defects in Blaew's press were remedied, as in part rests on the winter. Below the plank of the the Apollo press, invented in France; Prossen's press, carriage are short pieces of iron and steel, cramp- Roworth's press, but especially in the Stanhope press, irons, which slide upon two long iron bars or ribs which we now proceed to describe. In Fig. 1747, fixed on the upper part of the horizontal wooden BB, the body of the press, is a cast-iron frame in one frame. In order to run the carriage in and out upon piece, firmly screwed down to a wooden cross w'. the wooden frame, there is placed below the carriage Two horizontal rails R are screwed at pp, Fig.1748, to the split or small spindle with a double wheel on the two projecting pieces cast in one piece with the body middle of it, round which are fastened leather belts, for sustaining the carriage when the pull is made. the opposite ends of the belt being nailed to each The ribs of the carriage slide in grooves in the upper end of the plank of the carriage. On one of the surface of these rails, and are moved by the handle w ends of the split is fixed the winch or handle w', by with a split and leather, as in the common press. turning which the carriage can be run in and out A brass nut or hollow screw is fixed in the upper below the platten. The carriage is a strong wooden parts of the body of the press, in which the upper plank, on which is fixed a square wooden frame end of the spindle works. The mode of giving the forming the cell, in which is placed a polished stone descending motion to the screw is the chief improvefor sustaining the form of types. To this cell are ment in this press. This is shown separately in fixed stay-belts of leather, one end attached to the Fig. 1742; while in Figs. 1743, 1744, are represented cell, and the other to the cheeks of the press, so as the screw with a section of the internal screw into to prevent the carriage from running out too far which it fits. This screw is attached above s, Fig. 1747, when drawn from under the platten. On the outer to the rim LL, while the toe c of the screw fits into end of the plank is fixed the gallows, g, for supporting the cup c, Fig.1745, and the piece containing the cup is the tympans when they are turned up to receive a screwed by the holes hh to the platten P, Fig. 1746. The new sheet of paper after each impression. These handle II, for working the press, is firmly fixed into the tympans F' are light square frames, covered with parch-lower end of the vertical bar 6, the lower point of which 112 L L moves in a hole in the main frame, while the upper | the pull, as the pressman finally pulls in a direction end passes through a collar in a projecting piece н: nearly at right angles to its length; by which means being passed through this collar the end of the bar the platten is at first brought quickly down upon the joins a short lever paper where motion only is required; but as the levers L, which is again are gradually coming into the most favourable position connected by the link / with another short lever L' fixed on the upper end of the screw. The pressman, in pulling the handle н, turns round the spindle s, and by its connexion with the rod c, &c., the H Fig. 1742. great lever turns with it, and causes the platten to descend and produce the requisite pressure. The power of the lever I is transmitted to the screw in such a way as to produce certain required effects at different parts of the pull. At the beginning of the pull, when motion only is wanted, the handle lies in a direction parallel to the frame across the press; and the short lever L', which is nearly perpendicular to it, is likewise perpendicular to the connecting rod : but the lever L of the Fig. 1743. Fig. 1744. screw makes a considerable angle with 1, and it then Fig. 1745. Fig. 1746. for exerting the greatest force, this maximum pressure is produced just when it is wanted, that is, when the platten touches the paper to be printed. The range of the handle is limited by a stop, which is movable to a small extent in order to vary the pressure for different kinds of work. The insertion of the lever, by which the power is applied, into the arbor, and not into the spindle, leads to several advantages: 1. The length of the lever is equal to the whole width of the press instead of half, and is also in a better position for applying the man's strength. 2. There is the additional lever of the arbor head; 3. the additional lever of the spindle head; and lastly, the screw itself may be so enlarged in diameter as greatly to increase the power. The platten, which is screwed to the under surface of the piston, is of considerable weight, and the man would have to waste much strength in raising it from the form after the impression was made, were it not for a balanceweight w suspended upon a lever and hook at the back of the press, which counterbalances the weight of the platten, raises it from the form, and brings the bar-handle H back again ready for another pull. The form of types, T, instead of resting on a stone, as in the old press, lies upon a cast-iron block, with a perfectly flat horizontal surface, and the size of the press is such that a whole sheet can be printed at one pull. A variation in power is also obtained by a screw adjustment at the end of the link 7, by which it can be shortened. This is done by fixing the centre pin, which unites it to the lever L, in a bearing place, and slides in a groove formed on the side regulated by the screw. In this way the descent of the platten may be increased or diminished, and its surface is turned so as to be perfectly plane. Various other improvements in this press have been patented. In one case the screw is got rid of by a spiral or curved inclined plane fixed on the head of the press. On the upper end of the spindle a cross arm is placed, which acts against a fixed inclined plane, and thus acts the part of the screw: the acting faces are made of hardened steel. In Mr. Keir's arrangement the sliders is formed by boring out a cylindrical hole down the centre of the press, and fitting accurately into the cylinder, to the lower end of which is fastened the platten: a flat side is made to the cylinder, which is prevented from turning round by a bar of iron screwed | been improved. In the lower end of the spindle a across the two cheeks and bearing against the flat screw is cut and fitted into a nut; the spindle is made side of the cylinder. The lever apparatus has also to rise and fall through a space equal to the descent of the great screw in the same time, and the connecting rod 1, Fig. 1747, is thus made to pull in a horizontal plane, while in the old construction one end remains level when the other descends, which occasions an unequal wearing of the joints. In the simple and efficient arrangement shown in Fig. 1749, السن Fig. 1749. the screw is also got rid of by means of a cam or wedge c, which fits into a cup c", and is hollowed out above for the reception of the projection e' attached to a piece which is connected by an arm and a couplingbar 6, with the handle h. This piece is suspended by the main bolt m from the fixed bearings of the frame. In the position shown in the left-hand figure the platten p is raised, but the pressman, by pulling the handle towards him, brings the swinging piece and the wedge into the vertical, the effect of which is Fig. 1748. to send down the platten with great but regulated force, and with a very moderate expenditure of power on the part of the pressman. The range of the press may be adjusted by means of the powerscrew p. The press, such as we have described it, is worked by two men, one of whom inks the type and attends to the impression; the other works the press. Supposing the two forms to be correct, the inner form is first laid on the table, and secured in the centre by means of quoins. A sheet of stout paper is pasted on the frisket frame, and also secured upon the tympan. The form being inked an impression is taken on the frisket, after which the whole of the printed part is cut away, the portion which is left being intended to protect the paper from being soiled. A sheet of paper is next folded according to the crosses of the chase, and being placed on the form it is carefully opened so as to lie evenly on the form with the same margin as it is to have in the working. The tympan being wetted is closed down on the form and an impression taken, when the paper adheres to the tympan, and forms a guide for laying on the subsequent sheets with are to be printed. The points are next selected; these are pointed wires fixed in the tympan; they perforate the sheet and thus serve as guide marks to the pressman. The tympan frame is screwed on so that the points may fall into the cross of the chase. The paper is now brought from the wetting room, where it has been damped by passing it or th of a ream at a time, through water, and allowing it to soak 2 or 3 days until it is evenly damped throughout. A |