For the sake of dialectic theology, which was considered the highest aim in the province of knowledge, the liberal arts were neglected as the first preparatory steps. The monastic schools were mostly closed,36 the Cathedral schools sank into obscurity, although the Popes took them in some measure under their

etiam in conciliis haereses, quas sophistae Abaelardus, Lombardus, Petrus Pictavinus et Gilbertus Porretanus libris sententiarum suarum acuunt, limant. roborant. There are extracts in Bulaei hist. Univ. Paris. ii. 200 s. 402 ss. 562 ss. 629–660. A representation of its purport according to the Paris MS. is given by A. Planck in d. Theol. Studien u. Krit. 1844. iv. 823. In the prologue (1. c. p. 402) we find : Quisquis hoc legerit, non dubitabit, iv. labyrinthos Franciae i.e. Abaelardum et Lombardum, Petrum Pictav. et Gilbertum Porret. uno spiritu Aristotelico afflatos, dum ineffabilia Trinitatis et incarnationis scholastica levitate tractarent, multas haereses olim vomuisse, et adhuc errores pullulare. Further (p. 200): Quaeris, quid sit Labyrinthus, quo clausus fuit Minotaurus? Quaeris, quid sit [Minotaurus]? Non homo, non pecus est; pecus est, homo est, neutrumque. Quaeris, quorsum ista? talis Christus eorum, phantasticus est Deus ipsorum. Non homo, non Deus est; Deus est, homo est, neutrumque. Atque unusquisque Samarita fabricat sibi Deum. Tu vero, Christiane, verus veri Dei Israelita, fuge vitulos aureos, quos isti de cordibus suis impie Christianis proponunt. Exsuffla, inquam, istorum disputationes subtilissimas quidem, ac si aranearum telas putidas et prorsus inutiles, in quibus cum vitulis Samariae et Daemones ludunt, solaeque muscae gannientes i.e. filii perditionis illaqueantur ad mortem. Lib. iv. at the end (p. 659) Nos tamen illorum atomos et regulas philosophorum et quid et aliquid et caetera hujusmodi ridicula contemnimus et excommunicamus, dicentes cum Apostolo: Si quis aliud dixerit, praeterquam evangelizavimus vobis, licet nos, licet Angelus, licet Petrus, anathema sit. Non enim in divinis Scripturis hujusmodi deliramenta alicubi inveniuntur. Ideo licet nihil sit subtilius telis aranearum, nihil acutius acuminibus aristarum, qualia sunt ingenia et argumenta Daemoniorum per ora haereticorum, tamen Catholicis, ut ait Ambrosius in Hexaëm., exsufflanda potius quam legenda, quoniam omne quod natum est ex Deo, inquit, vincit mundum. Et haec est victoria, quae vincit mundum, fides nostra, qua Patrem, et Filium Jesum Christum cum pelle et carnibus, ossibus et nervis, anima et mente et totius hominis veritate, et Spiritum sanctum non opinamur, sed incunctanter credimus, tenemus, adoramus, unde Deus per omnia saecula saeculorum. Amen. Comp Schlosser e.g. S. 60 ss.

:

36 Before this time Desiderius, since 1058 Abbot of Montecassino, had closed the schools of this monastery, and Petrus Damiani lib. ad Desiderium says with reference to this: Inter caeteros virtutum flores, quos in illo agro pleno, cui benedixit Dominus, in Cassino Monte reperi, fateor, hoc mihi non mediocriter placuit, quod ibi scholas puerorum, quae saepe rigorem sanctitatis enervant, non inveni. Thus Peter Venerabilis closed the school in Cluny, and at the same time in all the Cluniac monasteries, Lorain essai hist. sur l'Abbaye de Clugny

37

protection. Even at this time John of Salisbury (the friend of Thomas a Becket, about 1176, Bishop of Chartres † 1182)38 perceived how Scholasticism degenerates into empty formalism,39 p. 30. F. Cramer's Gesch. d. Erziehung u. d. Unterrichts in d. Niederlanden während d. Mittelalters, Stralsund 1843, s. 143.

37 cf. Decretal. Gregor. p. ix. lib. v. tit. v. de magistris and Böhmer's notes thereto. The benefices of a magister scholarum were lost in the case of many cathedrals, and in others misused, to make the licentia docendi marketable. Accordingly Alexander III. decreed in Conc. Lateran. iii. ann. 1179: per unamquamque cathedralem Ecclesiam magistro, qui clericos ejusdem Ecclesiae et scholares pauperes gratis doceat, competens aliquod beneficium praebeatur. Pro licentia vero docendi nullus omnino pretium exigat (1. c. cap. 1.) Innocent III. in Conc. Later. iv. ann. 1215 not only renewed that decree, because it had not been generally observed, but commanded also that in the collegiate churches, such a master should be appointed, qui clericos Ecclesiarum ipsarum gratis in grammatica facultate ac aliis instruat juxta posse. Besides, the Metropolitan see was to have a divine, qui sacerdotes et alios in sacra pagina doceat, et in his praesertim informet, quae ad curam animarum spectare noscuntur (1. c. cap. 4.)

38 Concerning him Histoire litt. de la France xiv. 89. Ritter iii. 605. Johannes v. Salisbury von H. Reuter, Berlin 1842. His works were Policraticus s. de nugis Curialium et vestigiis Philosophorum libb. viii.; epistolae 303 (both found also in Bibl. pp. Lugd. xxiii. 242); Metalogicus, libb. iv. (publisht in 8. with the Policrat. at Paris 1610, and Lugd. Bat. 1610); Entheticus de dogmate philosophorum prim. editus a Chr. Petersen, Hamburgi 1843.

39 Metalog. lib. i. c. 3 describes the school of a certain Cornificius; Poëtae, historiographi habebantur infames, et si quis incumbebat laboribus antiquorum, notabatur, et non modo asello Arcadiae tardior, sed obtusior plumbo vel lapide, omnibus erat in risum. Suis enim aut magistri sui quisque incumbebat inventis. Nec hoc tamen diu licitum, cum ipsi auditores in brevi-spretis his, quae a doctoribus suis audie rant, cederent et conderent novas sectas. Fiebant ergo summi repente philosophi: nam qui illiteratus accesserat, fere non morabatur ulterius in scholis, quam eo curriculo temporis, quo avium pulli plumescunt.Sed quid docebant novi doctores, et qui plus somniorum quam vigilia. rum in scrutinio philosophiae consumpserant ?-Ecce nova fiebant omnia innovabatur grammatica, immutabatur dialectica, contemnebatur rhetorica, et novas totius quadrivii vias, evacuatis priorum regulis, de ipsis philosophiae adytis proferebant: solam convenientiam sine ratione loquebantur: argumentum sonabat in ore omnium, et asinum nominare vel hominem aut aliquid operum naturae instar criminis erat, aut ineptum nimis aut rude et a philosopho alienum.— Ex arte et de arte agere idem erat. Lib. ii. c. 6: Indignantur ergo puri philosophi, et qui omnia preter logicam dedignantur, aeque grammaticae ut physicae expertes et ethicae, et me improbum, obtusum, et caudicem, aut lapidem criminantur. Lib. ii. c. 8 Ut ait Seneca in i. Declam. Nihil est odibilius subt litate, ubi nihil aliud est quam subtilitas; et ad Lucilium: Nihil est acutius arista, sed haec ad quid utilis ?

because it withholds from its disciples all material knowledge, without however being able to give another direction to the stream by his appropriate suggestions.

§ 74.

SECOND PERIOD OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY DOWN TO DURANDUS DE S. PORCIANO ABOUT 1320.

The schoolmen of the twelfth century had only the Organon of Aristotle in Boethius' Latin translation, and their philosophical treatment of Dogmatic theology was purely logical. On the other hand all the works of Aristotle were translated into Arabic : The study of his philosophy flourisht especially after the time of

tale utile est illud ingenium, quod sola subtilitate lasciviens, nulla residet gravitate. Unde, ut idem scribit c. 7, fiunt in puerilibus Academici senes; omnem dictorum aut scriptorum excutiunt syllabam, immo et literam, dubitantes ad omnia, quaerentes semper et nunquam ad scientiam pervenientes, tandemque convertuntur ad vaniloquium: ac nescientes. quid loquantur, aut de quibus asserant, errores condunt novos, et antiquorum aut nesciunt aut dedignantur sententias imitari. There is much also on this head in Policraticus lib. vii. c. 7—14. Compare Stephani Episc. Tornacensis (+1200) epist. 251 ad Coelestinum iii. (s. § 60. not. 10): Lapsa sunt apud nos in confusionis officinam sacrarum studia literarum, dum et discipuli solis novitatibus applaudunt, et magistri gloriae potius invigilant quam doctrinae: novas recentesque sunmulas et commentaria firmantia super theologia passim conscribunt, quibus auditores suos demulceant, detineant, decipiant, quasi nondum suffecerint sanctorum opuscula Patrum, quos eodem Spiritu sacram Scripturam legimus exposuisse, quo eam composuisse credimus Apostolos et Prophetas.-Disputatur publice contra sacras constitutiones de incomprehensibili Deitate; de incarnatione Verbi Dei verbosa caro et sanguis irreverenter litigat; individua. Trinitas in triviis secatur et discerpitur; ut tot jam sint errores quot doctores, tot scandala quot auditoria, tot blasphemiae quot plateae. Then follow complaints of the perplexing number of the Decretals. Vae duo praedicta sunt, et ecce restat tertium vae. Facultates, quas liberales appellant, amissa libertate pristina in tantam servitutem devocantur, ut comatuli adolescentes earum magisteria impudenter usurpent, et in cathedra seniorum sedeant imberbes; et qui nondum noverunt esse discipuli, laborant ut nominentur magistri. Conscribunt et ipsi summulas suas, pluribus salivis affluentes et madidas, philosophorum sale nec conditas nec condītas. Omissis regulis artium, abjectisque libris authenticis artificum, muscas inanium verbulorum sophismatibus suis, tanquam aranearum

Avicenna (Ibn Sina † 1036), as well in the Moorish schools1 in Spain as in general under the Arabian sway. It received a fresh impulse in the beginning of the thirteenth century, from the new translation and commentary, with which Averrhoës (Ibn Roshd † about 1217) illustrated the works of Aristotle. Ever since the middle of the twelfth century pilgrimages to those seats of learning, from western Christendom, grew continually more common. It was natural that here also the attention and desires of men should turn to the remaining portions of Aristotelic philosophy. Soon they began to translate into Latin, the works of the Arabian Aristotelians; these they considered to be faithful representations of the Aristotelic philosophy, although in parts, as for instance the writings of Al-gazel († 1127), they were strongly infused with neoplatonics ideas. The high estimation in which Aristotle was already held as a logician won for this natural philosophy, supposed to be Aristotelian, an easy entrance into western Christendom.

tendiculis includunt. Clamat philosophia, vestes suas conscindi et disrumpi etc. Comp. Schlosser e.g. S. 64 ss.

1 Wachler's Gesch. d. Literatur. ii. 95. 113.

2 On the Arabian philosophy see Tennemann viii. 1, 362. Documenta philosophiae Arabum ex codd. mss. ed. D. Aug. Schmoelders, Bonnae 1836. His Essai sur les écoles philos. chez les Arabes, et notamment sur la doctrine d'Algazzali, Paris 1842. H. Ritter's Gesch. d. christl. Philosophie iii. 663.

• Caesaris Heisterbacensis (about 1225) de miraculis et visionibus sui temporis lib. v. c. 4: plures ex diversis regionibus scholares in eadem civitate (Toleti) studebant in arte necromantica, among them also were juvenes aliqui de Suevia et Bajoaria.

4 Jo. Launoji de varia Aristotelis in Acad. Paris. fortuna, Paris. 1662. 8. denuo ed. J. H. ab Elswich. Vitemb. 1720. 8, An entirely new light has been thrown upon this subject in Jourdain recherches critiques sur l'àge et l'origine des traductions latines d'Aristote, et sur des commentaires grecs ou arabes employés par des docteurs scholastiques. Paris 1819 (translated by Dr Stahr, Halle 1831) nouv. édit. revue et augm. 1843. Before this time, works on medicine, astronomy, and such subjects, had been translated from Arabic into Latin (Jourdain p. 97 ss.): Raymund, Archbishop of Toledo (1130-1150), was the first to cause the principal Arabic works on the Aristotelic philosophy, namely those of Avicenna, Algazel, and Alpharabius, to be translated by several learned men. (Jourdain p. 111 ss.)

5 Proofs of the existence of the doctrines of neoplatonic philosophy among the Mahometans may be seen in A. Tholuck's die speculative Trinitätslehre des späteren Orients, Berlin 1826. 8.

Still the first effects of this new wisdom must make it an object of the greatest suspicion. Whether the error of Simon of Tournay, teacher of theology in Paris about the year 1200, is to be explained by the influence of this philosophy, or to be regarded only as the blindness of a presumptuous dialectician, remains uncertain. But two other theologians' were beguiled by it into Pantheistic errors. Davids of Dinant remained firm in a specu

6 Two entirely different calumnious stories are told of him by Thomas Cantipratanus (see above, § 55, note 24) and Matthaeus Paris ann. 1201, p. 206 (namely: O Jesule, Jesule, quantum in hac quaestione confirmavi legem tuam et exaltavi: profecto si malignando et adversando vellem, fortioribus rationibus et argumentis scirem illam infirmare, et deprimendo improbare.) On the other hand Henricus Gandavensis, Doctor of the Sorbonne about 1280, in his lib. de scriptt. eccles. c. 24 (in Fabricii biblioth. eccl. ii. p. 121) says merely: dum nimis-Aristotelem sequitur, a nonnullis modernis haereseos arguitur. Compare Cramer vii. 98. Histoire littéraire de la France. xvi. 388. 7 Amalric v. Bena, in Engelhardt's kirchengesch. Abhandlungen, Erlangen 1832, S. 251. On Amalric and David see Ritter's Gesch. d. christl. Philosophie iii. 625. Amalrich v. Bena, v. Dr C. U. Hahn, in d. Theol. Studien u. Krit. 1846. i. 184. Amalrich v. Bena u. David v. Dinant, v. Dr J. H. Krönlein in d. Theol. Studien u. Krit. 1847. ii. 271.

8 Krönlein e.g. S. 283 rightly opposes the common opinion that David of Dinant was Amalric's pupil. Compare Chron. anonymi Laudun. Canonici, a contemporary, in Bouquet rerum Gall. scriptt. continued by Brial xviii. 714: Almaricus vir quidem subtilissimus, sed ingenio pessimus fuit: in omnibus facultatibus, in quibus studebat, aliis contrarius inveniebatur. Item sciendum, quod iste Magister Almaricus fuit cum domino Ludovico primogenito Regis Francorum, quia credebatur vir esse bonae conversationis et opinionis illaesac. Magister vero David, alter haereticus, de Dinaunt, hujus novitatis inventor, circa Papam Innocentium conversabatur, eo quod idem Papa subtilitatibus studiose incumbebat. Erat enim idem David subtilis ultra quam deceret, ex cujus quaternis, ut creditur, magister Almaricus et caeteri haeretici hujus temporis suum hauserunt errorem. Thomas Aquin. Summa theol. P. i. qu. iii. art. 8 makes an express distinction between their opinions, here he enumerates three errors with regard to the Being of God: Alii autem dixerunt, deum esse principium formale omnium rerum, et haec dicitur fuisse opinio Almaricanorum. Sed tertius error fuit David de Dinando, qui stultissime posuit, Deum esse materiam primam. So the Synod of Paris in 1209 condemned David's work at the same time with Amalric: not as was hitherto believed, because David was Amalric's pupil, but because Amalric had drawn his errors from David's work. Besides, according to that chronicle, David seems not to have been a teacher in Paris, but to have maintained himself at the Papal Court, and in 1209 he was certainly dead.