Hugo de St Victor,19 and ratified by Peter Lombard, and 19 In his work de Sacramentis he gives quite a different enumeration. He there defines the conception of a Sacrament in the following manner, lib i. P. ix. c. 2. Sacramentum est corporale vel materiale elementum foris sensibiliter propositum ex similitudine repraesentans, et ex institutione significans, et ex sanctificatione continens aliquam invisibilem et spiritalem gratiam. Afterwards, in cap. 7, he lays down three kinds of sacraments. Sunt enim quaedam sacramenta, in quibus principaliter salus constat et percipitur: sicut aqua baptismatis, et perceptio corporis et sanguinis Christi. Alia sunt, quae etsi necessaria non sunt ad salutem (quia sine his salus haberi potest), proficiunt tamen ad sanctificationem, quia his virtus exerceri et gratia amplior acquiri potest: ut aqua aspersionis, et susceptio cineris et similia. Sunt rursum alia sacramenta, quae ad hoc solum instituta esse videntur, ut per ipsa ea, quae caeteris sacramentis sanctificandis et instituendis necessaria sunt, quodammodo praeparentur et sanctificentur : vel circa personas in sacris Ordinibus perficiendis, vel in iis, quae ad habitum sacrorum Ordinum pertinent, initiandis et caeteris hujusmodi. Prima ergo ad salutem, secunda ad exercitationem, tertia ad praeparationem constituta sunt. Accordingly he first treats of the third class, vid. lib. ii. P. iii. and iv. de Ordinibus, P. v. de sacramento dedicationis Ecclesiae, next of the first, P. vi. de baptismo, P. vii. de confirmatione, P. viii. de sacramento corporis et sanguinis Christi, and then proceeds P. ix. to the second class, the lesser sacraments, of which he says in general cap. 1: Ex his sacramentis alia constant in rebus, qualia sunt aqua aspersionis, susceptio cineris, benedictio ramorum et cereorum et caetera talia: alia autem constant in factis, qualia sunt signaculum crucis, exsufflatio exorcizationis, expansio manuum, incurvatio genuum et alia hujusmodi alia in dictis constant, sicut trinitatis invocatio, et quaecunque in hunc modum. Then after he had treated of simony in P. x. he returns again, without specifying the class to which they belong, P. xi. to the sacramentum conjugii, P. xiv. to confessio et poenitentia et remissio peccatorum, which last however he nowhere calls a sacrament, and P. xv. to the sacramentum unctionis infirmorum. Compare Liebner's Hugo v. St Victor S. 423. Not so in his Summa Sententiarum. There we find tract iii. c. 16: Contra illa septem vitia sunt virtutes, quas pariunt septem dona Spiritus sancti. Tract iv. c. 1: Contra peccata tam originalia quam actualia, de quibus diximus, inventa sunt sacramentorum remedia. Thus it appears that the number of the sacraments is stated as seven: however in the following treatise only six are brought forward, to wit, tract. v. baptismus, tract. vi. sacramenta confirmationis, altaris, poenitentiae, unctionis extremae, tract. vii. sacr. conjugii. The sacramentum ordinis is left out. The work de ceremoniis, sacramentis, officiis et observationibus ecclesiasticis, that has been publisht in Hugo's name, in which i. 12 the seven sacraments were enumerated according to the decision of Lombard, as septem principalia sacramenta, was not composed by Hugo but by Robertus Paulus, Presbyter Ambianensis. generally establisht ;20 although at first a significant distinction was recognized among them, with regard to their institution as well as their importance." Thomas Aquinas brought the sacramental system of the Church to its consummation.22 20 At all events according to the vita s. Ottonis in Canisii lectt. ant. T. iii. P. ii. p. 61 ss. So early as the year 1124, Otto preacht the seven sacraments to the Pomeranians: however that life was written between 1139 and 1189, and the speeches can hardly be verbally correct. Peter Lombard, Sent. lib. iv. dist. 1-42, treats of the sacraments, and there he follows for the most part word for word the Summa of Hugo de St Victor, only he introduces orders as the seventh sacrament. Definition dist. i.: Sacramentum proprie dicitur, quod ita signum est gratiae Dei, et invisibilis gratiae forma, ut ipsius imaginem gerat et causa existat. Dist. ii. Sacramenta novae legis sunt baptismus, confirmatio, panis benedictio i. e. eucharistia, poenitentia, unctio extrema, ordo, conjugium. Quorum alia remedium contra peccatum praebent, et gratiam adjutricem conferunt, ut baptismus: alia in remedium tantum sunt, ut conjugium: alia gratia et virtute nos fulciunt, ut Eucharistia et Ordo. Of the sacrament of extreme unction, it was frequently asserted in the 12th century, that it could be received but once Ivo Carnot. ep. 255: Unctionem, quam semel accepisti, non aestimo repetendam: quia secundum institutum apostolicae sedis genus est sacramenti. Qui autem sacramenta Christi et Ecclesiae repetit, injuriam ipsis sacramentis ingerit. Godefridi Vindocinensis ep. ad Ivonem in Ivonis opp. ed. Paris. 1647, ii. 204 and ejusdem opusc. ix. : Inunctio infirmorum magnum sacramentum est, et ideo nulla est ratione iterandum. Nevertheless Hugo de s. Victore de sacram. lib. ii. P. c. 3 and Summa Sent. tract. vi. c. 15, controverts this view, and Peter Lombard lib. iv. dist. 23 follows him. The latter refers the position of Augustine, sacramentum non iterandum, only to the sacraments of baptism, confirmation, and ordination. Quidam autem de omni sacramento intelligi volunt, quod non sit iterandum, scil. secundum totum illud quod pertinet ad sacramentum, dicentes, quaedam sacramenta saepius posse suscipi, quaedam vero non. Nec tamen, quae saepius sumuntur, totaliter iterantur, ut sacramentum altaris et unctionis: quae licet sumantur saepius, tamen quia non iterum benedicitur eadem hostia, vel idem oleum, non iteratur sacramentum cum injuria. Odo, Bishop of Paris from 1196, in his Constitutiones synodicae c. 8 (Mansi xxii. 680) Doceant (sacerdotes) frequenter populum, hujusmodi sacramentum licite iterari et saepe recipi, scil. in qualibet magna infirmitate, unde metus est mortis, et post susceptum licite reverti ad opus conjugale eum, qui convaluerit de infirmitate. XV. 21 Alex. Hales. P. iv. qu. 8. art. 2. § 3: Cum septem sint sacramenta, propter quid sola duo instituta sunt a Domino secundum suam formam, scil. baptisma et eucharistia ?-Dominus institutionem formae voluit nobis dare per seipsum in illis principalibus sacramentis novae legis, quia ista totum hominem uniunt in corpore Ecclesiae secundum unitatem fidei et caritatis, cum digne suscipiuntur etc.-Formam vero 1 in aliis, quae non ita videntur esse principalia, per ministros Ecclesiae voluit ordinari. For instance it was frequently asserted of the Sacraments of confirmation, and extreme unction, that they were not instituted by Christ Himself, cf. Alex. Hales. P. iv. qu. 24. membr. 1. De institutione confirmationis: Sine praejudicio dicendum, quod neque Dominus hoc sacramentum, ut est sacramentum, instituit neque dispensavit, neque Apostoli.-Apostoli confirmati sunt a spiritu sancto immediate sine ministro et sacramento, et ipsi confirmabant sine sacramento. Sed postquam Apostoli, qui erant bases Ecclesiae,-defecerunt : institutum fuit hoc sacramentum Spiritus sancti instinctu in Concilio Meldensi, quantum ad formam verborum et materiam elementarem, cui etiam Spiritus sanctus contulit virtutem sanctificandi. Bonaventura P. iv. dist. 7. art. 1. qu. 1 et 2 agrees with this word for word. (The remarkable statement about the Concil. Meldense appears to have been drawn from Gratian's Decrees de consecrat. dist. 5. c. 7, where a decision or confirmation is transcribed from the Concil. Meldensi, although it belongs to the Conc. Paris. 829, lib. i. c. 33.) Of the Sacrament of Extreme Unction, Peter Lombard Sent. lib. iv. dist. 23 has expressly stated ab Apostolis institutum legitur, and Bonaventura ad lib. iv. dist. 23. art. 1. qu. 2 defends this assertion. Also of the Sacrament of Confession Bonaventura ad lib. iv. dist. 17. P. 2. art. 1. qu. 3 teaches, that Christ instituted it only quoad formale, i. e. potestatem absolvendi, when He assigned to the Apostles the power of the Keys on the other hand quoad materiale, i. e. detectionem peccati, it was instituted not by Christ, but by the Apostles. In opposition to these views, the Dominicans Albertus Magnus and Thomas laid down that the institution of all Sacraments by Christ Himself was necessary. Thus Albertus M. in Sent. lib. iv. dist. 7. art. 2 in reference to confirmation, and lib. iv. dist. 23. art. 13 with regard to extreme unction : compare Thomas in Sent. lib. iv. dist. 23. qu. 1. art. 1. solutio 3. Quidam dicunt, quod sacramentum istud (extremae unctionis) et confirmationis Christus non instituit per se, sed Apostolis instituendum dimisit: quia haec duo propter plenitudinem gratiae, quae in eis confertur, non potuerunt ante Spiritus sancti missionem plenissimam institui: unde sunt ita sacramenta novae legis, quod in veteri lege figuram non habuerunt.-Alii dicunt, quod omnia sacramenta Christus instituit per se ipsum: sed quaedam per seipsum promulgavit, quae sunt majoris difficultatis ad credendum; quaedam autem Apostolis promulganda reservavit, sicut extremam unctionem et confirmationem. Et haec opinio pro tanto videtur probabilior, quia sacramenta ad fundamentum legis pertinent, et ideo ad legislatorem pertinet eorum institutio: et iterum quia ex institutione efficaciam habent, quae eis non nisi divinitus est.-Christus-non exhibuit aliquod sacramentum, nisi quod ipse accepit in exemplum. Accipere autem poenitentiam, et extremam unctionem sibi non competebat, quia sine peccato erat: et ideo ipse non exhibuit. Thus says he of confirmation Summae P. iii. qu. 72. art. 1: instituere novum sacramentum pertinet ad potestatem excellentiae, quae competit soli Christo. Et ideo dicendum est, quod Christus instituit hoc sacramentum, non exhibendo sed promittendo. 22 Thomae Summa theol. P. iii. qu. 60-150, and Suppl. ad P. iii. qu. 1-68 (the last reference is drawn from his Comm. in Sent. lib. iv. dist. 1-42.) Examples of construction; The sacramentum matrimonii only rested on Eph. v. 32, and the Schoolmen were at fault, to prove there a virtutem sacramentalem: So Lombard (above note 20) says in remedium tantum esse (quite agreeing with Hugo a S. Victore de Sacram. lib. ii. P. xi.): on this head Thomas Aquinas in Sent. lib. iv. dist. 2. qu. 1. art. 1: gratia, quae in matrimonio confertur, secundum quod est sacramentum Ecclesiae in fide Christi celebratum, ordinatur directe ad reprimendum concupiscentiam quae concurrit ad actum matrimonii; et ideo Magister dicit, quod matrimonium est tantum in remedium, sed hoc est per gratiam, quae in eo confertur. Notwithstanding this explanation the statement: quod quaedam sacramenta novae legis instituta sunt in remedium tantum, ut matrimonium, fell among the Articuli, in quibus Magister non tenetur (d' Argentré i. 118.)-Thus came in also in after times the doctrine of character, of which neither Lombard nor Gratian knew anything. Already Augustine (Contr. Epist. Parmen. lib. ii. c. 13, in Gratian. P. ii. caus. i. qu. 1. c. 97) had compared Baptism and Ordination, insomuch as by them a man receives his fellowship in Christianity and his warrant for exercising the priestly office, with the character militiae (character regius epist. 185. § 23), or the signum regale, the mark that was imprinted on the soldier's arm or hand. Thus Innocent III. Decr. Greg. lib. iii. tit. 42. c. 3, speaks of a character qui in baptismate imprimitur. But afterwards Alexander of Hales (in Sent. lib. iv. qu. 8. membr. 8) makes the character which was communicated by the Sacraments of Baptism, confirmation and orders, a subject of special enquiry Bonaventura (in Sent. lib. iv. dist. 6. P. 1) and Thomas Aquinas (Summa P. iii. qu. 63) brought the doctrine to completion. Thomas (1. c. art. 2) confutes those who, holding the primitive opinion, asserted, quod character non sit spiritualis potestas, but only signum sanctum communionis fidei, et sanctae ordinationis, datum a hierarcha. According to him on the other hand, character importat quandam potentiam spiritualem ordinatam ad ea, quae sunt divini cultus, and (art. 5) aliter est in anima gratia, et aliter character. Nam gratia est in anima, sicut quaedam forma habens esse completum in ea: character autem est in anima, sicut quaedam virtus instrumentalis.-Gratia inest animae mutabiliter, character indelebiliter. Duns Scotus (ad lib. iv. dist. 6. qu. 9. § 13) declares: licet characterem inesse animae, non possit probari per rationem naturalem,-licet etiam ex creditis manifeste, sive quae sunt explicite de substantia fidei, sive quae continentur in Scriptura, sive quae manifeste per Sanctos sunt elicita ex creditis, non possit probari, tamen poni potest etc.-Sentiendum est de sacramentis Ecclesiae, sicut sentit Romana Ecclesia: Romana autem Ecclesia videtur sentire, characterem imprimi in anima in baptismo, sicut dicit Innoc. III. (see above) :-propter ergo solam auctoritatem Ecclesiae, quantum occurrit ad praesens, est ponendum, characterem imprimi.The idea of the Opus operatum is first found in Duns Scotus lib. iv. dist. 1. qu. 6. § 10: Sacramentum ex virtute operis operati confert gratiam, ita quod non requiritur ibi bonus motus interior, qui mereatur gratiam sed sufficit, quod suscipiens non ponat obicem. On the other : § 78. ADORATION OF SAINTS. In the Crusades and the many new monastic orders, the principal causes are to be found, why the number of saints1 hand there remained a controversy on the cause of the efficacy of Sacraments. Thomas Summa P. iii. qu. 62. art. 1 impugns the opinion quod sacramenta non sunt causa gratiae aliquid operando, sed quia Deus sacramentis adhibitis in anima gratiam operatur, The Principalis Causa is God, the instrumentalis the Sacrament itself; art. 4: Sed ponendo, quod sacramentum est instrumentalis causa gratiae, necesse est simul ponere, quod in sacramento sit quaedam virtus instrumentalis ad inducendum sacramentalem effectum. He thus assumes, in corpore (i. e. in sacramentis) esse virtutem spiritualem instrumentaliter. Duns Scotus lib. iv. dist. 1. qu. 5 controverts at great length this virtus spiritualis or supernaturalis, and asserts on the other hand : Susceptio sacramenti est dispositio necessitans ad effectum signatum per sacramentum, non quidem per aliquam formam intrinsecam, per quam necessario causaret terminum, vel aliquam dispositionem praeviam : sed tantum per assistentiam Dei causantis illum effectum. 1 The growth of the Legend of the 11,000 virgins is in itself characteristic of the age. We find, even in Wandelberti martyrol. rhythm. (about the year 850), if the passage is genuine in other respects, ad xxi. Oct. Tunc numerosa simul Rheni per litora fulgent Millia mactavit, ductricibus inclyta sanctis. On the other hand in Usuardus (about 876) ad xx. Oct. Civitate Colonia passio sanctarum virginum Marthae et Saulae cum aliis pluribus. In a Kalendarium Eccl. Coloniensis saec. noni ed. A. J. Binterim, Colon. 1824. 4. ad xxi. Oct. xi. Virginum, Ursulae, Sanciae, Gregoriae, Pinosae, Marthae, Saulae, Britulae, Satninae (leg. Santinae), Rabaciae, Saturiae (leg. Saturniae), Palladiae (see the same names in Adonis martyrolog. op. H. Rosweydi, Antwerp 1613. fol. App. p. 212.) First at Treves in a Kalend. saec. xi. (in Hontheim prodrom. hist. Trev. i. 385) we find: Sanctarum Virginum milia; afterwards in another dated the end of the 11th century (ibid. p. 392), and in a third of the year 1128 (ibid. p. 399): XI. milium Virginum. Probably an ancient legend of Cologne, about many Virgins, who had been slain by the Hunns, was connected with the unknown saintly virgins of the 20th and 21st Oct. (Compare the similar legend of St Sunniva in Norway, Münter's Kirchengesh. v. Danemark u. Norw. i. 432. 478.) The number 11,000 appears to have risen from a misunderstanding of the antient martyrologies: according to Valesius the |