three years before his death, as sending for him to be his lieutenant. This statement, therefore, is a proof of Livy's carelessness.-Hanno, surnamed the Great, though for what reason it is difficult to discover. He was the constant leader of the opponents of the Barcine faction. The speech is, without doubt, an entire fabrication. Livy himself tells us (xxx. 37) afterwards that Hannibal never saw Carthage from the time he left it at nine years of age to go to Spain, till he returned a little before the battle of Zama. The two passages were probably copied from different authors with Livy's usual carelessness of fact, and love for what would produce a fine dramatic situation. Two reasons are suggested in the speech for keeping Hannibal at home: (1) That his morals may not be corrupted by Hasdrubal. (2) That he may learn to respect law and order from an enforced submission to civil magistrates.-prætorum, derived from præ, before, and the termination tor, and therefore readily applicable to leaders of armies. Hence consuls at Rome were first called prætores. — regni paterni and regis are used invidiously for imperi paterni and ducis, though it is quite true that, as Spain had been chiefly acquired by Hamilcar and his son-in-law, and the Spaniards had been personally attached to Hamilcar, and were now equally so to Hasdrubal, the power wielded by both of them was far more kingly than that ordinarily at the command of a Carthaginian general.-quandoque, some time or other."

=

Ca. Hannibale character noque, and Indeed," is another form of atque adque, and subjoins the more important ferme optimus quisque to explain pauci. It is worth while to notice how many terms significative of moral worth have in all languages been used to signify adhesion to the cause of the few. Optimus here does not mean "best morally," but "best politically, siding with the aristocratic party." So, also, meliorem partem in the next line.-vultu. vultus, is the upper part, os the lower part of the face.-in se. Se is the ablative. Malle, confidere, audere are historical infinitives; that is, they are used instead of the past imperfect indicative, as is often the case in historical writing, to bring the various portions of the scene forward in quick succession.-fortiter ac strenue, "with courage and activity."-custodias stationesque. The former word signifies a smaller number of troops, guarding at intervals within the fortifications. By the latter is signified a greater number, engaged on outpost duty.- inter æquales inter æqualium vestitum. - inhumana crudelitas, perfidia plus quam Punica. Both these charges I believe to be false. Polybius (ix. 24) expressly denies both. The Romans were never to be believed about an enemy. There is no doubt that Hannibal never did anything one-fiftieth part so bad as the crime of which the whole Roman people were guilty, in snatching Sardinia and Corsica from Carthage on a lying pretext, in a moment of intense temporary weakness. Had Carthaginian accounts come down to us, Roman faith, not Punic, would have been another name for perfidy.-nihil veri, nihil sancti . . nulla religio. The Romans ha no words in their language to express such abstract notions as untruthfulness, ungodliness, perjury, &c., because they were not untruthful, ungodly, or perjured, at the time their language was formed. Hence the notions are here expressed by circumlocutions, with the help of the negative words nihil and nullus. That these statements are not true has been already asserted, partly on the authority of Polybius. But Livy himself disproves some of them by his own statements in xxi. 21, 22; in xxv. 17; xxvii. 28; &c.

...

v. Hannibal prepares to besiege Saguntum.-quia... Romana arma movebantur non dubium erat quin futurum esset ut Romana arma

moverentur. There was no doubt that, if Hannibal attacked Saguntum without any pretext, the Romans would be able to prove indisputably to his countrymen that he was altogether in the wrong. Therefore he began to make a pretext, by stirring up the people round about, and involving them in quarrels with the Saguntines.-Olcadum. The Olcades lived to the north of New Carthage, near the source of the Guadiana.-ultra Hiberum. To the south of the Ebro; beyond it, to an inhabitant of Rome.-rerum serie...jungendoque ad conjungendam domitarum gentium seriem, "that he might seem to have been drawn on to round off his dominion by the course of events, and the successive annexation of all the neighbouring tribes."-Cartalam. The correct name, Althaea, is given by Polybius (iii. 13).-Carthaginem novam. A town built south of C. Palos by Hasdrubal, the son-in-law of Hamilcar, in the immediate neighbourhood of the richest silver mines in Spain. It was called New Carthage, to distinguish it from the African Carthage, though the word Carthage itself means New City, and therefore Carthago nova=urbs nova nova. Carthago nova was the chief of all the Carthaginian possessions in Spain; its site is now occupied by the modern Cartagena.-civium. There were very few of Hannibal's fellow-citizens in his army to pay. Livy was thinking of the composition of the Roman armies. The Carthaginian armies consisted all but exclusively of mercenaries. The citizens of Carthage itself were too fond of money-making and luxury to like soldiering. Hence it was that they fell before the warrior citizens of Rome, just as in medieval times, the silken Italians, for the same reason, fell before the iron legions of France, Germany, and Spain.- Vaccæos. The Vaccæi dwelt on the Douro; Salmantica, the modern Salamanca, was their capital. This is, as far as we know, the furthest to which the Carthaginians ever pushed their conquests in Spain in that direction. The use of the preposition in, instead of ad, before Vaccæos, shows that the name of the nation is here used as the name of the place in which the nation lives. So ex is often used instead of a or ab.-Carpetanos. One of the most powerful tribes of Spain, inhabiting a great part of Old and New Castile.ab hostibus, "on the part of the enemy."-valloque ita producto, "and his rampart having been only just so far removed from the river that . . ."-adpendicibus. This word is used to show that the great majority of the Spanish army was Carpetanian. A mere handful comparatively were Olcades and Vaccæi.-inmissa, "sent in ” by Hannibal.—medioque alveo, "in the middle of the channel.”—vix vado fidens, "hardly daring to step firmly in the shallow part of the river."-amni is ablative for the commoner amne. So we find in cap. xlv. Maharbali for Maharbale-tanto pavore in tanto pavore; "before they could free themselves of the fear in which they still were."-fugam ex ripa fecit fecit ut ex ripa fugerent.—et jam omnia... Carthaginiensium So Polybius, iii. 14. ὧν ἡττηθέντων οὐδεὶς ἔτι τῶν ἐντὸς Ιβηρος ποταμοῦ ῥᾳδίως πρὸς αὐτοὺς ἀντοφθαλμεῖν ἐτόλμα πλὴν Ζακανθαίων.

erant.

vi. The Saguntines send ambassadors to Rome to sue for protection.ceterum is often used by Livy, especially after non in the sense of sed.-Turdetanis. The Turdetani dwelt between the Guadalquiver and Guadiana, about Seville. It is difficult, therefore, to imagine how a tribe, living the whole breadth of the peninsula from the Saguntines, could have picked a quarrel with them. Hence Niebuhr wishes to read Edetanis for Turdetanis; the Edetani being a tribe close to Saguntum, in Valencia and Arragon, and being then, without doubt, under Carthaginian influence. This is the more possible, as Polybius does not mention the matter at all, and Appian, though he calls them by another name, Τορβολήτας, adds οἱ γείτονές

εἰσι Ζακανθαίων. Ti. stands for Tiberius, as T. alone stands for Titus. -consules tunc Romæ erant P. Cornelius Scipio et Ti. Sempronius Longus. The following note from Ruperti should be well studied : 66 Longe probabilius diligentiusque singula exponit, quo potissimum duce Noster in hoc bello describendo uti solet, Polybius, lib. iii. cc. 13 -17, 20, 33, et sq. scil. P. Cornelio et M. Minucio consulibus (that is, 533 A. U. c.), Hannibalem imperio in Hispania suscepto, Altheam, Olcadum oppidum cepisse, et Carthaginem novam concessisse in hiberna; L. Veturio et C. Lutatio consulibus (that is, 534 A. u. c.), Vaccæos Carpetanosque ab eo devictos, et legatos Saguntinos Romam, Romanosque in Hispaniam ad Hannibalem missos esse, qui eum Sagunto abstinere juberent; M. Livio et L. Æmilio consulibus (that is, .535 a. u. c.), Saguntum oppugnatam captamque esse, et novos legatos Roma Carthaginem venisse, qui deposcerent Hannibalem, bellumque Poenis indicerent; P. Cornelio Scipione et Ti. Sempronio consulibus (that is, 536 a. u. c.), Hannibalem populis Hispaniæ usque ad Pyrenæum subactis, per Galliam ad Alpes profectum et inde in Italiam trangressum esse. Polybius, iii. 33, notat mendacia scriptorum quales Livio ante oculos fuere, docetque se res ab Hannibale in Hispania gestas, hausisse ex ænea tabula ab ipso Hannibale descripta."--quibus si videretur qui, si iis videretur.—spe, 66 expectation." intenderant. The past perfect is often introduced by Livy after a past imperfect or present perfect to attract the reader's attention, and fix it on what follows. Here it introduces the advice which was ultimately acted on.

vii. The siege of Saguntum. The chapters containing Livy's account of this siege are among the most beautiful he ever wrote. They ar however, far too full and minute to be authentic. Polybius does not profess to enter into such details. He merely says that the town, after having been besieged for eight months, was taken by storm; that Hannibal gained immense booty, and thus made the Carthaginians willing to second his designs. Livy probably took his account from the work of Cælius Antipater, who was rather a rhetorician than an historian, and is therefore an untrustworthy authority. Cicero does not speak of him with any great respect, De Or. ii., 13: "Sed iste ipse Cælius neque distinxit historiam varietate locorum; neque verborum collocatione, et tractu orationis leni et æquabili perpolivit illud opus; sed ut homo neque doctus neque maxime aptus ad dicendum, sicut potuit, dolavit; vicit tamen, ut dicis, superiores." Dum ea Romani parant. Notice how dum, whilst, governs the present imperfect tense, even though the verb in the principal clause, oppugnabatur, is in the past imperfect.—oriundi, agrees with Saguntini understood in civitas. So xxvi. 19: "Emporiis, urbe Græca (oriundi et ipsi a Phocæa sunt), copias exposuit."-Zacyntho. Zante, one of the seven Ionian isles. Zákavea, the Greek name for Saguntum, is so like Zacynthus, that that likeness probably created the story of the connection in origin between the two. -ab Ardea Rutulorum quidam generis, some of the race of the Rutulians from Ardea." Ardea was a town about twenty-four miles from Rome, of considerable importance, as this legend testifies, in very early times.-fructibus, "commercial gains."-disciplina sanctitate... coluerunt, "by the purity of their moral principles, which led them to keep their faith to their allies, even to their own destruction." This is a flourish of Livy's. The Saguntines fought for themselves. They owed the Romans nothing.-submovere, pati, &c., are historic infinitives. -adversum femur, "the front of the thigh."

viii. The siege of Saguntum continued.-dum. . . curaretur. Dum

governs the subjunctive here, because it relates not merely to time, but to purpose. See Arnold's Lat. Comp. 508 (b).-partibus. Pars often occurs in Livy in the ablative governed by a preposition understood.-continentibus ruinis, "a continuous breach."-per occasionem partis alterius, "as either party seizes on or gives an opportunity for an attack."-justæ acies, "pitched battles," ""quæ jure dici possent acies." Crevier.-phalarica. This ponderous spear was so called from phala, a wooden tower or scaffolding used in sieges, to throw missiles from into a besieged city.―tereti, "round,' from terere, to rub smooth."-nudum, "without arms, defenceless."

"

ix. Hannibal refuses an audience to the Roman ambassadors.-opera Bsse = = operæ pretium esse, vacare. This of course, as well as the former reason given, was a mere pretence.-præmittit is the historic present, and therefore equivalent to a past tense.-gratificari pro Romanis is an unusual construction. Some commentators therefore have, with some show of reason, supposed that Livy wrote gratificari populo Romano, which, being contracted into p. Rom., might easily have been altered by transcribers into pro Romanis.

x. Hanno's speech on the complaints of the Roman ambassadors at Carthage. This speech is a very beautiful one, but is of course entirely a creation of Livy's, in order to give a dramatic representation of what - he conceived to be the views of the peace-party at Carthage.-adversus senatum, "before the senate." The common reading adverso senatu, besides being against the manuscripts, would make the expression non cum adsensu superfluous.—monuisse, prædixisse se, “that he had advised and forewarned them." So πроеπеiv is used in Greek.-ulti agrees with Romani understood in Romance legiones.-bonus imperator vester, "that precious general of yours," that is, of the Barcine faction.-publica fraus absit; "Concessio ex personâ Romanorum; quasi diceret Hanno; fœderis rupti et noxam et pœnam non publicam esse Carthaginiensium, sed solius Hannibalis propriam, Romani facile patiuntur." Crevier.-Egates insulas. Three small islands lying off the western angle of Sicily, near which C. Lutatius Catras gained the great naval victory which put an end to the first Punic war. The largest of them, Ægusa, is now called Favignana. -Erycem. A town and mountain in the western angle of Sicily, held by Hamilcar in spite of the efforts of the Romans to dislodge him, till the victory of Catulus made the Carthaginians sue for peace. — Mars alter. So Horace, Sat. ii. 3, 296: Hæc mihi Stertinius, sapientum. octavus, amico Ama dedit.-isti. The Barcine faction.-Tarento, id est Italia. Italy is added to explain Tarentum, because Italy, not Tarentum, was mentioned in the treaty. Polybius, however (iii. 26), expressly denies that there was any such agreement; μhre YEYOVÓTOS, μήθ' ὑπάρχοντος τὸ παράπαν ἐγγράφου τοιούτου μηδενός. Sagunti non abstinemus. So Hor. Carm. iii. 27, 69: abstineto, Dixit, irarum calidæque rixæ,"—id ice quo verbis ambigebatur. "Possis ordinare

in hunc modum: Eventus belli... ei victoriam dedit, unde jus stabat, id de quo, sive quæ erat res de qua verbis ambigebatur, nempe uter populus fœdus rupisset." Crev. This insertion of the relative clause before the proposition to which it refers, is usual. Thus Cic. pro Sex. Rosc. Am. 4: "Sin a vobis (id quod non spero) deserar, tamen animo non deficiam." dedendum, devehendum, ablegandum, are governed by some such word as dico, understood in the preceding detestor, or in the following censeo.— deposcit. I should prefer to read with some, deposcat.

xi. The siege of Saguntum continued.-in hostes stimulando, is in apposition to, and explains ira.-pro contione, "before the assembled

army." Contio, generally spelt concio, because it has erroneously been derived from concieo, is a contraction for conventio.-camenta, "roughhewn stone," contracted for cædmenta, from cado.- calce durata, "cemented with lime."-latius quam qua cæderetur ruebat. "Latior

erat ruina quam ea pars muri, quæ cæsa sive icta fuerat." Cæderetur is in the subjunctive to show that this destruction happened, not in one part of the wall, but wherever it might be struck.—Oretanos, a powerful tribe of Spain, living in Granada, Murcia, and La Mancha.

xii. The siege continued.-Maharbale, one of the best of Hannibal's officers. He performed many brilliant exploits during the war. He it was who urged Hannibal to march on to Rome after the battle of Cannæ. -cives, "the Carthaginian army." There were, however, as has been already explained, very few citizens of Carthage in the army. Hispanum. Alorcus is said to be a Spaniard, not a Saguntine, because the Saguntines are supposed by Livy to be Greeks.-aliquid, "in some measure. -alia: = muri, munimenta, arces.—prætorem, "the chief magistrate." senatus, "an interview with the senate." xiii. Alorcus's speech.-quo, sc. itinere . . . nec ullius alterius, "and not in the interest of Hannibal."-postquam.. est. A rare construction. Postquam seldom has the present after it, unless it be the historic present. -si.... audiatis, si.... habituri estis. Notice how Livy varies the mood after si in the case of the two verbs.-captam habet, "has taken and still keeps."-binis, "two a-piece." Livy represents Hannibal as relaxing his terms in this respect. In c. 12, he says, singulis vestimentis.

xiv. The siege continued.-plerique, refers to primores, "most of the leading men."-semet ipsi. Ipse is generally attracted to the case of the subject, unles, it is specially intended to mark that the subject did the thing to himself, rather than to any one else. Thus we should say nosce te ipsum, not nosce te ipse.—crudele. ... cognitum ipso eventu est. This is an instance of zeugma, or two subjects having a common verb, which applies properly to only one of them. The meaning is : "crudele fuit, ceterum necessarium cognitum ipso eventu est." Alschefski however translates it thus: "which cruel command was however in other respects shown by the result to be inevitable." Crudele, this cruel order was probably never given. Polybius says nothing about it. It no doubt owes its origin to the deadly hate which the Romans bore to Hannibal. How an enormous spoil in money, slaves, and goods could have been gained, when almost all the city was either a heap of ruins or burnt, and all the men, and most of the women and children perished, Livy does not explain. -super se ipsos, 'over their own heads." Here the sense requires ipsos, not ipsi. See the previous note.

xv. The capture of the town, and the date of the capture.-Octavo mense, quam, not "after seven full months, and in the middle of the eighth," but "eight full months after." See Arnold's Lat. Comp., p. 89, n. r. quidam seripsere. See Polybius, iii. 17: "TÉλOS ÉV OKтà μnol Kaтà KрάTOS EÎλE THν Tóλv."—quæ si ita sunt, fieri non potuit ut. Livy, as has already been shown in the notes on c. vi., has got himself into these difficulties by attempting to crowd the events of four years into one. Hannibal entered on his command in the year 533 A.U.o., burst into Italy in the year 536, and conquered C. flaminius, the colleague of C. Servilius, at the Trasymene Lake in the year 537. The supposition of Livy would therefore not do away with all the contradictions in which he has involved himself.

xvi. Preparation for war.-sociorum is the objective genitive.-da