To a man holding this view, the orator's power as a speaker and influence as a writer appear of little moment. On the other hand, the biographers of Cicero have generally read into his life the lofty ideals of his moral treatises, and have either ignored or tried to explain away his many inconsistencies. A fairer view may be gained by emphasizing neither aspect of his character unduly, but by subjecting his political activities, his moral ideals, and his daily life to the same impartial scrutiny.

The sources of our knowledge of Cicero are threefold: first, the references in contemporary writers, chiefly Caesar and Sallust, both of whom were more or less unfriendly to him on political grounds; secondly, his own works; and thirdly, the statements of later Greek and Roman writers, mainly, Appian, Dion Cassius, Plutarch, Suetonius, and Florus. By far the greater number of facts about him are gleaned from his own writings, particularly the letters. It is safe to say that if his correspondence had not been preserved, his name would have been spared most of the unfriendly criticism that has gathered about it. He was indiscreet enough to think on paper; his passing fancies or suggestions, to most of which he may have given no second thought, are to-day before us, subject to cool critical analysis and comparison. It is said that no man is a hero to his valet. What impulsive person, whose eventful life had brought him into contact with many public men in a trying period, would not shrink from having his most private correspondence given to the world? What man, whose inmost heart should be so revealed, would not be convicted of numberless foibles, weaknesses, inconsistencies? Such are the frailties of human nature; a most unhappy illustration may be found in the Carlyle correspondence, recently published. The letters of Cicero charm and enlighten us, yet show us many things unworthy of a great man; but, after all, deeds are

greater than thoughts, more than words. Granted that a high-minded man, whose prominent position brought him many enemies and numberless trials, may have shown himself, in the privacy of friendly intercourse, at times weak and inconsistent with his professed ideals, should that make us blind to his nobler traits, or to the greatness of his life-work for humanity?

The age of Cicero abounded in eminent men who from childhood had had the advantages of wealth and family prestige in their favor. Cicero entered the lists a 'new man,' without great wealth, without a long line of distinguished ancestry to bring him favorable recognition, apparently without anything in his favor, excepting a limited acquaintance with public men, a fair education, and an ambition to make the most of himself. He practised law, and generally won his cases. He came forward as a candidate, and received from the people unprecedented favor, for a man without powerful connections, in the rapid promotion to public offices. He accomplished all these things by the sheer force of personal effort, in that period of Roman history when the influence of military leaders was rapidly becoming paramount. Surely this

betokens no ordinary power.

The natural gifts of Cicero fitted him to be an orator and writer rather than a statesman. His nice sense of balance, and his philosophical habit of looking at all sides of a case, sometimes made it impossible for him to decide quickly where a prompt decision was necessary. His mind was rather of the contemplative than the executive type. His tastes drew him toward the ideal; but an irresistible impulse drove him into practical affairs. He did not escape the contagious passion for political power characteristic of his generation; yet he lacked the steadiness of view, the singleness of aim, the persistency — perhaps also the courage needful for one who

would be more than temporarily great as a political leader. He was possessed also of a naïve and thoroughly good-natured egotism, which asserted itself on all occasions. Yet in an age

of bribery, he was never convicted of giving or receiving a bribe. In a period of mad dissipation and debauchery, he remained untainted with vice, and in his affection for his daughter has left us one of the most beautiful pictures of ancient home-life. At a time of broils and violence, he was a man of peace, hating strife, a man of honor in all the relations of life. That was no unfitting tribute paid him by the historian Livy: Sixty-three years he lived, so that his death, except that it was violent, cannot be considered untimely.. After both his faults and his virtues have been

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1

6

taken into account, he remains a great, spirited, and distinguished man, to whose praises only the eloquence of a Cicero could do justice.'

V. THE PORTRAITS OF CICERO.

The name of Cicero has been given to many busts that have come down from antiquity. The great majority of them, however, have no claim to be considered genuine. One famous bust, at Madrid, is marked with the name of Cicero in an inscription undoubtedly ancient; but the head is modern. Of the busts in Italian museums which probably give a true likeness of the orator, three are worthy of mention. One is at Florence, in the Uffizi Gallery. The other two are at Rome, one in the Vatican collection, the other in the Capitoline Museum. The frontispiece of this volume is from the one last mentioned. The expansive forehead, the sensitive mouth, and the open, thoughtful face not free from lines of care, correspond closely with the characteristics of Cicero revealed in his works.

1 Sen. Suas. vii.

II. THE ORATIONS OF CICERO.

i. GENERAL VIEW OF THE ORATIONS.

Cicero left more than a hundred speeches. Of these, fiftyseven are still extant. Fragments of twenty others remain, and the titles of thirty more are known. The themes and general character of the extant orations may be learned from the following summary :

1. Speeches in Legal Cases.

a. In civil cases.

For Quinctius, delivered B. c. 81; in connection with a suit for debt.

For Roscius the Comedian, 76; in a case concerning payment of damages for the death of a slave.

For Tullius, 72 or 71; in a suit for damages on account of the destruction of property.

For Caecina, 69; in a suit concerning an inheritance.

b. In criminal cases.

See pp. 2, 3.

For Roscius of Ameria, B. C. 80.
Against Caecilius, 70; a prelude to the action against
Verres.

Against Verres, 70; six speeches in all, of which only the
first was actually delivered. See pp. 3, 4.

For Fonteius, 69; against a charge of provincial extortion.

For Cluentius, 66. See p. 4.

For Rabirius, 63. See p. 6.

For Murena, 63; against a charge of corrupt canvassing

for votes.

For Valerius Flaccus, 59; against a charge of provincial extortion.

For Sestius, 56; against a charge of violence.

Against Vatinius, 56; for the impeachment of a witness for the prosecution of Sestius.

For Caelius, 56; in a suit arising from an intrigue.

For Cornelius Balbus, 56; against the charge of having illegally assumed the rights of citizenship.

For Plancius, 54; against a charge of bribery.

For Rabirius Postumus, 54; against a charge of extortion.
For Milo, 52. See p. 9.

For Marcellus, 46. See p. 49.

For Ligarius, 46; in favor of a former partisan of Pompey, then in exile.

For Deiotarus, King of Galatia, 45; against a charge of complicity in a plot to murder Caesar.

2. Political Speeches.

On Pompey's Commission, 66. See p. 27.

On the Agrarian measure of Rullus, 63; three speeches,
the first addressed to the Senate, the second and third
to the people. There was a fourth speech, now lost.
See pp. 5, 6.

Against Catiline, 63; four speeches. See p. 36.
After Return from Exile, four speeches: the first giving

thanks to the Senate, 57; the second thanking the
people, 57; the third, 'On his House,' showing that
his house on the Palatine, destroyed by Clodius,
should be restored at public expense, 57; the fourth,
'On the Answers of the Soothsayers,' against ob-
jections to the rebuilding of his house on a site that
had been consecrated, 56.

On the Consular Provinces, 56; urging the prolongation of Caesar's command in Gaul; before the Senate. Against Piso, 55; an abusive attack upon a personal

enemy; before the Senate.

Against Antony, 44-43; fourteen orations. See p. 51.