1. In these rules we have the Laws of the Cases, which are true of every object whatever, applied to actual places; as countries, fields, towns, &c. 2. Note here the use of Prepositions. They are used, as additional signs, to make that clearer which is shown in a measure by the affix, or case-ending, of the case (Int. 16). Thus 'm,' the case-ending of the Accusative, shows that the lord came towards Italy. The preposition in, 'in' or 'on,' shows that he came into,' or 'on to' it; whereas the preposition ad, at,' shows that he came to,' so as to be at or near it. Similarly, ex with the Ablative shows that he came from in, or from on, it; that is, 'out of,' or 'off' it; whereas ab shows that he came from being at it, or simply from ' it. Observe the sentences in A, B, C. 3. The idea of motion through' is included in the original idea of 'motion to' (IV. A). For, in moving through a space, I come to each point of it in turn. Before the name of a place the preposition per is required, as otherwise it would not be clear whether I come simply to, or through it. But when the noun names space or distance, the preposition is not wanted, as it would not be sense to say, 'I come to a mile. 6 4. There is the same uncertainty in the use of Prepositions with the 9 at as with the 'from' Ablative (VIII. 2). If the verb itself seems to imply confinement in, the Preposition, though it may be used, is not necessary: as, Casar tenuit se castris, 'Cæsar kept himself in the camp.' Also with certain words it has got by usage to be unnecessary: as locus, and the abjective totus. Also in the later writers and poets the Ablative without a Preposition came to be used instead of the Dative for the names of towns: as Tibure, 'at Tibur;' Carthagine, 'at Carthage.' 6 5 If any other adjective but the Possessive Adjective is joined to domus, a Preposition is commonly prefixed, and domus is in the usual case: as, domi meæ, at my house;' domum meam, to my house; but, in illa domo, 'in that house;' in illam domum, 'to that house.' See sentences in C. 6. This example is given merely to show that nouns of the second, or o, Declension use the old Dative form in i for the names of towns. See Steps, Int. 24. S. When another noun is joined in Apposition (XVI. A) to the name of a town, each noun follows its own rule; the name of the town not taking, the other noun taking, a Preposition: as, Dominus Albam in urbem munitam venit. The lord came to Alba, a fortified city. The lord came from Alba, a fortified city. The lord remained at Alba, a fortified city. A. The noun naming the time, through which an action is continued, is in the Accusative case, commonly without a Preposition: as, Dominus viginti annos vixit. The lord lived twenty years. a. The Preposition per is sometimes prefixed; rarely before actual dates, as years, months, &c.; but commonly before a noun in the singular (without an adjective) denoting continuance: as, Dominus dormit per noctem. The lord sleeps through the night. B. The noun naming the time, at or in the course of which an action is performed, is in the Ablative case, commonly without a Preposition : as, Dominus vicesimo ætatis anno decessit. The lord died in the twentieth year of his age. a. Nouns naming, not only actual dates, but also events, at or in the course of which an action is performed, are in the Ablative, commonly without a Preposition: as, Solis occasu dominus rediit. At sunset the lord returned. C. In accordance with the general Rules (IV. A, VIII. A), the nouns naming the time to, and the time from, which an action is continued are in the Accusative and Ablative with Prepositions as, Dominus ab hora tertia ad decimam dormivit. The lord slept from the third to the tenth hour. 1. In these rules we have the Laws of the Cases, which are true of any object whatever, applied to actual times, as years, months, days, &c. 2. Just as per before the Accusative (A. a), the preposition in is occasionally prefixed to the Ablative: not before actual dates, but usually before a singular noun without an adjective, and before nouns naming objects that continue through time, as boyhood, age, and the like. Before bellum, war,' the use seems quite optional. 6 S. The following constructions, though not common, may be noted. As the noun in the Ablative names the time, in the course of which the action is performed, it may be taken in three ways :— a. As naming the whole time. In this sense it means ' through,' with the force of the Accusative: as, Dominus tota æstate vos exspectat. The lord has been expecting you the whole summer. b. As it names the whole time, it may name any point in it, as the beginning :3 as, Dominus duobus ante annis rediit. c. Or the end :3 as, Dominus duobus post annis rediit. Two years afterwards the lord returned. 3. The lord returned in the two years previously.' This might mean 'in any part of the two years;' but the sense fixes it to be the beginning. So the next sentence, The lord returned in the two years afterwards' might mean in any part of the two years; but the sense fixes it to the end. CHAPTER XI. PASSIVE VOICE. A. The Latin Transitive verb passes through two voices, Active and Passive: the verb in the Active voice denoting that the subject performs the action on some object, while the verb in the Passive voice denotes that the subject suffers the action from the object, which object is called the Agent. The noun naming the Agent1 with a Passive verb is in the Ablative with the Preposition a or ab: as, Dominus a servo portatur. The lord is carried by the slave. B. Intransitive verbs are only used impersonally in the Passive voice: that is, they only pass through the third person singular of each tense, and are used without a Subject-word:2 as, A domino ambulatur (a). A walk is taken by the lord; or, The lord walks. A domino mulieri ceditur (6). Concession is made to the woman by the lord; or, The woman is yielded to by the lord. A domino mulieri paretur3 (y). Obedience is paid to the woman by the lord; or, The woman is obeyed by the lord. a. Intransitive verbs are commonly used in the Passive when the Agent is not named: 4 as, Diu pugnatum est. The battle lasted long. Its I. The Agent is the living object, from which the action comes. noun therefore takes a Preposition, according to VIII. A. a. The carrying comes from the slave. But in English the Preposition' by ' is commonly used. The Agent therefore must be carefully distinguished from the inanimate object, the instrument or means, by which the action is performed. This will have its noun in the Ablative without a Preposition, according to VIII. B. f. 2. In English, Intransitive verbs have no Passive voice. We cannot say, 'It is walked,' 'It was sat.' We must either use the Active voice, or some such expression as, 'A walk is taken,' 'A sitting was held.' 3. Great care must be taken with such verbs as Pareo, obey'; that is, with verbs which are Intransitive in Latin, but Transitive in English (V. B. a. a). In English they pass through the Passive like any other Transitive verb; but in Latin, being Intransitive, they can only be used in the Passive in the third singular. Thus for 'I am obeyed,' thou art obeyed,' &c., we have, not Pareor, pareris, &c., but, paretur mihi, paretur tibi, paretur puero, paretur nobis, paretur vobis, paretur pueris. 4. For this indefinite use of the Passive without naming the Agent we have no regular phrase in English. Thus for Vivitur we can say 'Men live,' or 'We live,' or 'Life is passed.' It answers to the French use of on, and the German of man. S. The Passive is sometimes used in a Reflexive sense : that is, it denotes that the Subject performs the action, either on, or with reference to, itself, like the Middle in Greek :5 as, a. Dominus armatur. The lord arms himself. b. Dominus induitur vestem. It is very ; 5. This seems to have been the original use of the Passive voice the affix for the Passive being the Reflexive pronoun se. common in poetry, especially with Perfect Participles; but not so common in prose. There was a tendency in the language to drop the accusative se (like other accusatives, as exercitum after duco, and castra after moveo): whether separate, as with the Active voice; or united with the verb, as in the Passive. Thus from vert, 'turn,' we have both vertit se (transitive active), and vertitur (reflexive passive), for he turns himself and we have also vertit (reflexive active). In English we have both transitive active, and reflexive active (or intransitive): we can say both he turns himself,' and 'he turns': but we have nothing like the reflexive passive vertitur. In Latin, as a matter of usage, in those few verbs which have this use, the Passive form is preferred for the Reflexive sense in the Imperfect tenses, the Active in the Perfect tenses. Thus revertitur is preferred for 'he returns ;' revertit (not reversus est), for he returned.' A. There are certain verbs called Deponent which are Passive in form, but Active in signification. There are both Intransitive and Transitive Deponents: 2 as, |