triennium, quadriennium, sexennium, septuennium (more correct than septennium), decennium, a period of two, three, four, six, &c., years. From dies we have biduum, triduum, quatriduum, a time of two, three, four days. From viri are formed duoviri, tresviri, quattuorviri, quinqueviri, se- or sex-viri, septemviri, decemviri, quindecemviri, all of which compounds, if they may be so called, denote a commission consisting of a certain number of men, appointed for certain purposes. A member of such a commission is called duumvir, triumvir, from which is formed the plural triumviri, which, properly speaking, is ungrammatical, and, in fact, still wants the sanction of a good authority. In inscriptions triumviri does not occur, and duomviri only once (Gruter, p. 43, No. 5): the ordinary mode of writing it was II viri, III viri. Printed books, without the authority of MSS., are not decisive. To these words we may add the three, bimus, trimus, and quadrimus; i. e., a child of two, three, four years.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

[§ 125.] 1. PRONOUNS are words which supply the place of a substantive; such as, I, thou, we, and in Latin, ego, tu, nos, &c. These words are in themselves substantives, and require nothing to complete their meaning; hence they are called pronouns substantive (pronomina substantiva), but more commonly personal pronouns, pronomina personalia.

Note.-Sui is a pronoun of the third person, but not in the same way that ego and tu are pronouns of the first and second persons. For the third person (he, she, it) is not expressed in Latin in the nominative, and is implied in the third person of the verb; but if it is to be expressed, a demonstrative pronoun, commonly ille, is used. The other cases of the English pronoun of the third person are expressed by the oblique cases of is, ea, id, the nominative of which belongs to the demonstrative pronouns. Thus we say, pudet me mei, tui, ejus; laudo me, te, eum. Sui, sibi, se, is the pronoun of the third person in a reflective sense; as, laudat se, he praises himself, in which proposition the object is the same as the subject. The use of this reflective pronoun in Latin is somewhat more extensive than in our language; for sui, sibi, se, and the possessive suus, sua, suum, are used not only when the subject to which they refer occurs in the same sentence, but also when in a dependent sentence the subject of the principal or governing sentence is referred to; e. g., putat hoc sibi nocere, he thinks that this injures him (instead of himself). The beginner must observe that wherever he may add "self" to the pronoun of the third per- . son, he has to use the reflective pronouns and the possessive suus, sua, suum; e. g., Gaius contemnebat divitias, quod se felicem reddere non possent, because they could not make him (i. e., himself, and not any other person) happy; but quod eum felicem reddere non possent would mean, because they could not make him (some other person, e. g., his friend) happy.

[§ 126.] 2. Besides these there is a number of words which are adjectives, inasmuch as they have three distinct forms for the three genders, and their meaning is not complete without a substantive ether expressed or under

stood. But their inflection differs so widely from what are commonly called adjectives, and they are so frequently used instead of a substantive, that they are not unjustly termed pronouns. They are:

1. The adjunctive: ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self.

2. The demonstrative: hic, haec, hoc; iste, ista, istud, ille, illa, illud; is, ea, id, and the compound idem, eadem, idem.

3. The relative: qui, quae, quod, and the compounds quicunque and quisquis.

4. The two interrogatives: viz., the substantive interrogative, quis, quid? and the adjective interrogative, qui, quae, quod?

5. The indefinite pronouns : aliquis, aliqua, aliquid and aliquod; quidam, quaedam, quiddam and quoddam; aliquispiam, or, abridged, quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam and quodpiam; quisquam, neuter quidquam; quivis, quilibet, and quisque, and all the compounds of qui or quis.

Respecting the use of these pronouns, see Chapter LXXXIV., C. The following observations are intended to develop only the fundamental principles.

[127.] Note 1.-SIGNIFICATION OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. -Hic, this, is used of objects which are nearest to the speaker, whereas more distant objects are referred to by ille. The person nearest of all to the speaker is the speaker himself, whence hic homo is often the same as ego (see some passages in Heindorf on Horace, Sat., i., 9, 47); and in this respect hic is called the pronoun of the first person. Iste points to the person to whom I am speaking, and to the things appertaining to him. Thus, iste liber, ista vestis, istud negotium, are equivalent to thy book, thy dress, thy business; and iste is, for this reason, called the pronoun of the second person.* Ille, that, is the pronoun of the third person; that is, it points to the person of whom I am speaking to some one, hence ille liber means the book of which we are speaking (Compare, on these points, ◊ 291.) Is is used: 1. To point to something preceding, and is somewhat less emphatic than "the person mentioned before ;" and, 2. As a sort of logical conjunction, when followed by qui, is qui answers to the English "he who." Idem, the same, expresses the unity or identity of a subject with two predicates; e. g., Cicero did this thing, and he did that also, would be expressed in Latin, idem illud perfecit, hence idem may sometimes answer to our "also;" e. g., Cicero was an orator, and also a philosopher: Cicero orator erat idemque (et idem) philosophus.

[128.] Note 2.-THE COMPOUNDED RELATIVES.-They are formed by means of the suffix cunque, which, however, is sometimes separated from its pronoun by some intervening word. It arose from the relative adverb cum (also spelled quum) and the suffix que, expressive of universality (as in

*[So completely was this the meaning of the pronoun iste, that it has descended to the derivative costi in the modern Italian; and a lawsuit as to the place where a bill was payable once turned upon the meaning of this adverb. Journal of Education, vol. i., p. 97.]-Am. Ed.

It

quisque, $129; and in adverbs, § 288). Cunque, therefore, originally signihed" whenever." By being attached to a relative pronoun or adverb, e. g., qualiscunque, quotcunque, ubicunque, utcunque, quandocunque, it renders the relative meaning of these words more general, and produces a relativum generale; and as qui signifies "who," quicunque becomes "whoever," or every one who?" e. g., quemcunque librum legeris, ejus summam paucis verbis in commentaria referto, or utcunque se res habuit, tua tamen culpa est. thus always occurs in connexion with a verb, as the subject of a proposition. The same signification is produced by doubling the relative; e. g., quotquot, qualisqualis; and in the case of adverbs, ubiubi, utut, quoquo, &c. Thus we should have quiqui, quaequae, quodquod quicunque, quaecunque, quodcunque; but these forms are not used in the nominative, and instead of them quisquis, quidquid, were formed from the substantive interrogative quis? quid? and the doubled relative quisquis retained its substantive signification, "every one who," whereas quicunque has the meaning of an adjective. So, at least, it is with the neuter quidquid, whatever. The mas culine quisquis, by way of exception, is likewise used as an adjective; e. g., in Horace: quisquis erit vitae color; and Pliny: quisquis erit ventus (nay, even the neuter quidquid in Virgil, Aen., X., 493, and Horace, Carm., ii., 13, 9, which is a complete anomaly). In the oblique cases the substantive and adjective significations coincide.

=

[ 129.] Note 3.-THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.-All the above-mentioned words are originally at once substantives and adjectives, and for this reason they have two distinct forms for the neuter. According to the ordinary practice, however, quisquam is a substantive only, and is often accompanied by the adjective ullus, a, um. Quispiam, too, is principally used as a substantive; but aliquispiam, in the few passages where it occurs (it is found only in Cic., Pro Sext., 29, aliquapiam vi: and Tuscul., iii., 9, aliquodpiam membrum), is used as an adjective; and aliquis, which has the same meaning, is found in both senses. Quisquam, with the supplementary ullus, has a negative meaning; e. g., I do not believe that any one (quisquam) has done this: quispiam and aliquis are affirmative, and quidam may be translated by "a certain." By adding the verbs vis and libet to the relative we obtain quivis and quilibet, any one; and by adding the particle que we obtain quisque and the compound unusquisque. All of these words express an indefinite generality: respecting their difference, compare Chap. LXXXIV., C.

[§ 130.] 3. The possessive pronouns are derived from the substantive pronouns, and in form they are regular adjectives of three terminations: meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester; to which we must add the relative cujus, a, um · and the pronomina gentilicia (which express origin), nos tras, vestras, and cujas.

4. Lastly, we include among the pronouns, also, what are called pronominalia, that is, adjectives of so general a meaning that, like real pronouns, they frequently supply the place of a noun substantive. Such pronominalia are, (a) those which answer to the question, who? and are partly single words and partly compounds: alius, ullus, nullus, nonnullus. If we ask, which of two? it is expressed by uter? and the answer to it is alter, one of two; neuter, neither; alteruter, either the one or the other; utervis and uterlibet, either of the two. The relative pro

noun (when referring to two) is likewise uter, and, in a more general sense, utercunque. (b) Those which denote quality, size, or number, in quite a general way. They stand in relation to one another (whence they are called correlatives), and are formed according to a fixed rule. The interrogative beginning with qu coincides with the form of the relative, and, according to the theory of the ancient grammarians, they differ only in their accent (see § 34); the indefinite is formed by prefixing ali; the demonstrative begins with t, and its power is sometimes increased by the suffix dem (as in idem); the relative may acquire a more general meaning by being doubled, or by the suffix cunque (§ 128); the indefinite generality is expressed (according to § 129) by adding the words libet or vis to the (original) interrogative form. In this manner we obtain the following pronominal correlatives, with which we have to compare the adverbial correlatives mentioned in § 288.

To these we must add the diminutives quantulus, quantuluscunque, tantu lus, aliquantulum.

CHAPTER XXXV.

DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.

[§ 131.] 1. DECLENSION of the personal pronouns ego, tu, sui:

Note.-The suffix met may be added to all the cases of these three pro nouns to express the English emphatic self; as, egomet, mihimet, temet, semet, and even with the addition of ipse after it; as, mihimet ipsi, temet ipsum. The genit. plur. and the nominat. tu alone do not admit this suffix. Instead of it the emphasis is given to tu by the suffix tě; as, tute, and to this, again, by the addition of met; as, tutemet. The accus. and ablat. singular of these pronouns admit a reduplication, meme, tete, sese; of sui alone it is used in the plural also.

The contracted form of the dative, mi for mihi (like nil for nihil), is frequently found in poetry, but rarely in prose. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are properly genitives of the possessive pronouns meum, tuum, suum, nostrum, vestrum, for originally the neuters meum, tuum, &c., were used in the sense of "my being," or of "as regards me, thee," &c. (the Greek Tò quóv), instead of the simple I, thou, &c. In like manner, the genitives nostrum, vestrum, are properly the genitives of the possessives nostri and vestri. (See 9 51.) The beginner may pass over the origin of these forms, since they are used as the real genitives of the personal pronouns; but he must be reminded of it in the construction of the gerund, 660. Respecting the difference between nostri, vestri, and nostrum, vestrum, see 431.

[§ 132.] 2. Declension of the demonstrative pronouns and ipse:

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Nom. and Voc. Hic, haec, Nom. and Voc. hi, hae, haec,

Note. The ancient form of this pronoun was hice, haece, hoce, in which we recognise the demonstrative ce, which, when a word by itself, appears in the form ecce. The cases ending in c arose from the omission of the e, which is still found in old Latin, e. g., hance legem, hace lege. (This explains the obsolete form haec, for hae or haece, in Terence. See Bentley on Ter., Andr., i., 1, 99.) In ordinary language the cases in s alone sometimes take the complete ce to render the demonstrative power more emphatic, e. g,, hujusce, hosce. By adding the enclitic interrogative ne to ce or c, we obtain the interrogative hicine, haecine, hocine, &c.

The pronouns iste, ista, istud, and ille, illa, illud, are declined alike, and in the following manner: K