sup. fictum. Of the words in which o is preceded by l, m, n, r, or s, only a few in mo follow the ordinary rule; e. g., como, demo; perf. compsi, dempsi; sup. comptum, demptum: all the others have mixed forms.

6. Two irregularities are especially common in the formation of the perfect of the third conjugation. The first is the addition of a syllable at the beginning of the verb, called reduplication, in which the first consonant of the verb is repeated either with the vowel which follows it, or with an ě, e. g., tundo, tutudi; tendo, tetendi; cano, cecini; curro, cucurri; fallo, fefelli; parco, peperci. In the compounds of such words the reduplication is not used, except in those of do, sto, disco, posco, and in some of curro. The second irregularity is that many verbs of the third conjugation form their perfect like those of the second, just as many verbs of the second make that tense like those of the third. This is the case especially with many verbs in lo and mo; as, alo, alui, alitum (altum); molo, molui, molitum; gemo, gemui, gemitum. Concerning this and other special irregularities, see the list of verbs in Chap. L.

[§ 155.] 7. The derivation of the other tenses and forms of a verb from these four (present, perfect, supine, and infinitive), which are supposed to be known, is easy and without irregularity in the detail.

From the infinitive active are formed:

(a) The imperative passive, which has in all conjuga tions the same form as the infinitive active.

(b) The imperative active, by dropping the termination re. It thus ends in conjugation, 1, in a; 2, ē; 3, ě; 4, i; as, ama, mone, lege, audi.

(c) The imperfect subjunctive active, by the addition of m, so that it ends in the four conjugations in ārem, ērem, ěrem, īrem, e. g., amarem, monerem, legerem, audirem. (d) The imperfect subjunctive passive, by the addition of r; as in amarer, monerer, legerer, audirer.

(e) The infinitive present passive, by changing e into i, e. g., amari, moneri, audiri; but in the third conjugation the whole termination ĕre is changed into i, as in legere, legi.

From the present indicative active are derived:

(a) The present indicative passive, by the addition of r: as, amor, moneor, legor, audior.

(b) The present subjunctive active, by changing the o into em in the first conjugation, and in the three others into am; as, amem, moneam, legam, audiam.

(c) The present subjunctive passive, by changing the m of the present subjunctive active into r; as, amer, monear, legar, audiar.

(d) The imperfect indicative active, by changing o into abam in the first conjugation, in the second into bam, and in the third and fourth into ebam. A change of the m into r makes the imperfect indicative passive, e. g., amabam, amabar; monebam, monebar; legebam, legebar; audiebam, audiebar.

(e) The first future active, by changing o into abo in the first conjugation, in the second into bo, and in the third and fourth into am. From this is formed the first future passive by adding r in the first and second conjugations, and by changing m into r in the third and fourth; e. g., laudabo, laudabor; monebo, monebor; legam, legar; audiam, audiar.

(f) The participle present active, by changing o in the first conjugations into ans, in the second into ns, and in the third and fourth into ens; e. g., laudo, laudans; moneo, monens; lego, legens; audio, audiens. From this participle is derived the participle future passive, by changing ns into ndus; e. g., `amandus, monendus, legendus, audiendus; and the gerund: amandum, monendum, legendum, audiendum.

From the perfect indicative active are derived:

(a) The pluperfect indicative, by changing i into ĕram: laudaveram, monueram, legeram, audiveram.

(b) The future perfect, by changing i into ero: laudavero, monuero, legero, audivero.

(c) The perfect subjunctive,* by changing i into ĕrim; laudaverim, monuerim, legerim, audiverim.

(d) The pluperfect subjunctive, by changing i into issem (originally essem): laudavissem, monuissem, legissem,. audivissem.

(e) The perfect infinitive active, by changing into isse (originally esse): laudavisse, monuisse, legisse, audi

visse.

We use this name because the tense is most commonly used in the sense of a perfect subjunctive, although its form shows that it is in reality the subjunctive of the future perfect, the termination ĕre being changed into ĕrim.

From the supine are derived:

(a) The participle perfect passive, by changing um into us, a, um laudatus, a, um; monitus, a, um; lectus, a, um; auditus, a, um.

(b) The participle future active, by changing um into ūrus, a, um: laudaturus, a, um; moniturus, a, um ; lecturus, a, um; auditurus, a, um.

By means of the former participle, we form the tenses of the passive, which express a completed action; and by means of the participle future we may form a new conjugation expressing actions which are to come. See Chap. XLIII.

CHAPTER XLI.

66
THE VERB ESSE."

[§ 156.] The verb esse (to be) is called an auxiliary verb, because it is necessary for the formation of some tenses of the passive voice. It is also called a verb substantive, because it is the most general expression of existence. Its conjugation is very irregular, being made up of parts of two different verbs, the Greek εἰμί, ἐστί, ἔσομαι (from which sim and sum, est, eso or ero, were easily formed), and the obsolete fuo, the Greek púw. The supine and gerund are wanting, but the inflection in the persons is regular.

Present, state not terminated, esse, to be.

Perfect, terminated, fuisse, to have been.

Future, futurum (am, um) esse, or fore, to be about to be.

PARTICIPLES.

Present, not terminated (ens), being.

Future, futurus, a, um, one who is about to be.

Note. The participle ens is only used as a substantive in philosophica. language (see above, § 78, in fin.), and also in the two compounds, absens and praesens.

The compounds absum, adsum, desum, insum, intersum, obsum, praesum, subsum, supersum, have the same conjugation as sum. Prosum inserts a d when pro is followed by e; e. g., prodes, prodest, &c.‡ Possum, I can (from pot, for potis, and sum), has an irregular conjugation. (See the irregular verbs, 211.)

The i in simus and sitis is long, and the e in eram, ero, &c., is short, as is indicated above in the conjugation itself, and also in the compounds; prosimus, prodĕram, proděrant, proderit, &c.

Siem, sies, siet, sient, and fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant (from the obsolete fuo),§

* [The Perfect has often the force of an aorist, and is to be translated accordingly. In some grammars the perfect and aorist are given separ. ately in inflection. Compare § 500.]-Am. Ed.

+ [For an explanation of this mode of translating the imperative, consult the author's remarks, 583.]—Am. Ed.

[This "insertion of d," as it is commonly called, is nothing more than the bringing back of the full form of pro, which was anciently prod, and with which we may compare the Greek προτ-ί, for πρός, it being now admitted that pó and πpós are, in fact, one and the same word.]-Am. Ed.

[There is in Sanscrit the verb bhavami, from the root bhu, allied to the

are antiquated forms for the corresponding persons of sim, and occur in the comic writers and in Lucretius. Instead of essem we have another form for the imperfect subjunctive, forem (likewise from fuo), in the singular and the third person plural. The infinitive fore belongs to the same root. Cicero rarely uses the form forem, but Livy frequently, especially in the sense of the conditional mood, "I should be." Other writers, especially the poets and Tacitus, use it in all respects like essem. The perfect fuvi, and the tenses derived from it, fūveram, füvissem, fūvero, are other forms of fui, &c., and occur in the earliest poets; and in like manner we find, in the ancient language, escit, escunt, for erit and erunt.

CHAPTER XLII.

THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

[§ 157.] IN the following table the terminations are separated from the root of the verb, which renders it easy to conjugate any other verb according to these models. The verb lego (see Chap. XL.) is irregular in the formation of its perfect, but it has been retained as an example of verbs of the third conjugation, because the very absence of any peculiar termination in the perfect is a safeguard against misunderstandings which might arise; for example, from duco, duxi; scribo, scripsi; or claudo, clausi.

old Latin verb fuo, and in the sense of oriri, nasci. With this may be compared the Greek pów, and the verb to be in English, together with the Celtic bydh, the Russian budu, and the Persian budemi. The Sanscrit has preserved the whole of bhavami, whereas the cognate verbs are defective in most other tongues.]—Am. Ed.