[§ 222.] 8. Apăge, 9. Ave, 10. Salve, 11. Vale, be gone. hail. hail. farewell. Note.-Apage is the Greek imperative unaye of úrúyw, and akin tu abigo; apage istas sorores! away with them! especially apage te, get thyself off, or, with the omission of the pronoun, apage, begone. Salveo in Plautus, Trucul., ii., 2, 4, may be regarded as the present of salve. Comp. Probus, Instit. Gram., p. 141, ed. Lindemann. Vale and ave, on the other hand, are regular imperatives of valeo, I am well, and aveo, I desire; and they are mentioned here only on occount of their change of meaning. The plural is, avete, salvete, valete; the imperat. fut. aveto, salveto, valeto. The future, salvebis, valebis, is likewise used in the sense of an imperative, and the infinitives mostly with jubeo: avere, salvere, valere. [§ 223.] 12. Cedo, give, tell. This word is used as an imperative in familiar language, for da and dic, both with and without an accusative. A plural cette occurs in old Latin. The e is short in this word, which thus differs from the complete verb cēdo, I yield, give way. [§ 224.] 13. Quaeso, I beseech. Quaeso is originally the same as quaero, but in good prose it is generally inserted in another sentence. Besides this first person singular, we find only the first person plural quaesumus. 14. Forem, I should be. This imperfect subjunctive, which is conjugated regularly, has arisen from fuerem, of the obsolete verb fuo, and belongs to sum. (See above, § 156.) [§ 225.] 1. THE term Impersonal Verbs strictly applies only to those of which no other but the third person sin gular is used, and which do not admit a personal subjec (I, thou, he), the subject being a proposition, an infinitive, or a neuter noun understood. (See § 441, &c.) Verbs of this kind are: Miseret (me), I pity, perfect miseritum est. Pudet (me), I am ashamed, puduit or puditum est. Taedet (me), I am disgusted with, (taeduit, very rare), pertaesum est. Oportet, it behooves, oportuit, fut. oportebit. Note.-Miseruit, the regular perfect of miseret, occurs so seldom, that we have not here noticed it. The form commonly used is miseritum or misertum est, which is derived from the impersonal me miseretur tui, which is not uncommon, although the deponent misereri is otherwise used only as a personal verb, misereor tui. Compare the passages, Cic., p. Ligar., 5; cave te fratrum pro salute fratris obsecrantium misereatur: in Verr., i., 30; jam me tui misereri non potest, where the verb is likewise impersonal. [§ 226.] 2. Besides these impersonals, there are some others, which likewise have no personal subject, but yet are used in the third person plural, and may have a nominative (at least a neuter pronoun) as their subject. Such verbs are: Libet (mihi), I like, choose; perf. libuit, or libitum est. Licet (mihi), I am permitted; perf. licuit, or licitum est. Decet (me), it becomes me, and dedecet, it does not become me; perf. decuit, dedecuit. Liquet, it is obvious; perf. licuit. Note.-Libuit has been mentioned here as a perfect of libet, but it is usu ally found only as a present, in the sense of libet. [§ 227.] 3. There is also a considerable number of verbs which are used impersonally in the third person, while their other persons occur with more or less difference in meaning. To these belong: interest and refert in the sense of "it is of importance to," with which no nominative can be used as a subject; farther, accidit, fit, evenit, and contingit, it happens; accedit, it is added to, or in addition to; attinet and pertinet (ad aliquid), it concerns; conducit, it is conducive; convenit, it suits; constat, it is known or established; expedit, it is expedient; delectat and juvat, it delights, pleases; fallit, fugit, and praeterit me, it escapes me, I do not know; placet, it pleases; perf. placuit and placitum est; praestat, it is better; restat, it remains; vacat, it is wanting; est, in the sense of licet, it is permitted or possible, e. g., est videre, non est dicere verum, but especially in poetry and late prose writers. [§ 228.] 4. The verbs which denote the changes of the weather; pluit, it rains; ningit, it snows; grandinat, it hails; lapidat (perf. also lapidatum est), stones fall from heaven; fulgurat and fulminat, it lightens (with this dif ference, that fulminat is used of a flash of lightning which strikes an object); tonat, it thunders; lucescit and illucescit (perf. illuxit), it dawns; vesperascit and advesperascit (perf. advesperavit), the evening approaches: in all these cases the subject understood is supposed to be deus or coelum, which are, in fact, often added as their subjects. [§ 229.] 5. The third person singular passive of a great many words, especially of those denoting movement or saying, is, or may be used impersonally, even when the verb is neuter, and has no personal passive, e. g., curritur, they or people run; itur, ventum est, clamatur, fletur, scribitur, bibitur, &c. [§ 230.] 6. All these impersonal verbs, as such, have no imperative, the place of which is supplied by the pres ent subjunctive, e. g., pudeat te, be ashamed of! The participles, also (together with the forms derived from them, the gerund and the infinitive future), are wanting, with a few exceptions, such as libens, licens and liciturus, poenitens and poenitendus, pudendus. CHAPTER LXI. ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. [§ 231.] WE have hitherto treated of the changes which one particular form of nouns and verbs, supposed to be known (the nominative in nouns, and the infinitive in verbs), may undergo in forming cases and numbers, persons, tenses, moods, &c. But the origin of that form itself, which is taken as the basis in inflection, is explained in that special branch of the study of language which is called Etymology. Its object is to trace all the words of the language to their roots, and it must, therefore, soon lead us from the Latin to the Greek language, since both are nearly allied, and since the Greek was developed at an earlier period than the Latin. Other languages, too, must be consulted, in order to discover the original forms and significations. We cannot, however, here enter into these investigations, and must content ourselves with ascertaining, within the Latin language itself, the most prominent laws in the formation of new words from other more simple ones; a knowledge of these laws is useful to the beginner, since it facilitates his acquiring the language. But we shall here confine ourselves to nouns (substantive and adjective) and verbs, for the derivation and composition of pronouns and numerals have been discussed in a former part of this work; with regard to the (unchangeable) particles, on the other hand, etymology is necessary, as it supplies the place of inflection. The formation of new words from others previously existing takes place either by Derivation, or the addition of certain terminations; or by Composition. In regard to derivation, we have to distinguish primitive and derivative words; and, with regard to composition, simple and compound words. We shall first treat of derivation. I. VERBS. Verbs are derived either from other verbs or from nouns. A. With regard to the former, we distinguish four classes of verbs: 1. Frequentative; 2. Desiderative; 3. Diminutive; and 4. Inchoative. un 1. Frequentatives, all of which follow the first conjugation, denote the frequent repetition, or an increase of the action expressed by the primitive verb. They are derived from the supine by changing the regular ātum in the first conjugation into ito, itare; other verbs of the first conjugation, as well as of the others, remain changed, the termination of the supine, um, alone being changed into o, are. Of the former kind are, e. g., clamo, clamito; impero, imperito; rogito, volito; of the latter, domo, domitum, domito; adjuvo, adjūtum, adjūto; and from verbs of the third conjugation; curro, cursum, curso; cano, cantum, canto; dico, dictum, dicto; nosco, notum, noto; and so, also, accepto, pulso, defenso, gesto, quasso, tracto. Some of these latter frequentatives, derived from verbs of the third conjugation, serve, again, as primitives, from which new frequentatives are formed; as, cursito, dictito, defensito. There are some double frequentatives of this kind, without the intermediate form of the simple frequentative being used or known; such as actito from ago (acto); and so, also, lectito from lego, scriptito from scribo, haesito from haereo, visito from video, ventito from venio, advento. Some few frequentatives with the termination ito, itare, are not derived from the supine, but from the present of the primitive verb. This formation is necessary when R the primitive verb has no supine, as is the case with lateo, paveolatito, pavito. But the following are formed in this manner without there being such a reason: agito, noscito, quaerito, cogito. Some frequentatives have the deponential form; as, amplexor, from amplector, minitor from minor, tutor from tueor, scitor and sciscitor from scisco. [§ 232.] 2. Desideratives end in urio, urire (after the fourth conjugation), and express a desire of that which is implied in the primitive. They are formed from the supine of the latter, e. g., esurio, esuris, I want to eat, from edo, esum; so, also, coenaturio from coenatum, dicturio from dictum, empturio from emptum, parturio from partum, and in this manner Cicero (ad Att., ix., 10) jocosely formed Sullaturit et proscripturit, he would like to play the part of Sulla and to proscribe. Note. Some verbs in urio after the fourth conjugation, such as ligurire, scaturire, prurire, are not desideratives, and it should be observed that the u in these words is long. [§ 233.] 3. Diminutives have the termination illo, illare, which is added to the stem of the primitive verb without any farther change, and they describe the action expressed as something trifling or insignificant; e. g., cantillare, from cantare, to sing in an under voice, or sing with a shaking; conscribillare, scribble; sorbillare, from sorbere, sip. The number of these verbs is not great. [§ 234.] 4. Inchoatives have the termination sco, and follow the third conjugation. They express the beginning of the act or condition denoted by the primitive; e. g., caleo, I am warm; calesco, I am getting or becoming warm; areo, I am dry; aresco, I begin to be dry; langueo, I am languid; languesco, I am becoming languid. It frequently happens that a preposition is prefixed to an inchoative, as in timeo, pertimesco; taceo, conticesco. The vowel preceding the termination sco, scere, is either a (asco), e (esco), or i (isco), according as the inchoative is derived from a primitive of the first, second, or third and fourth conjugation (in the last two cases it is isco); e. g., labasco from labare, totter. pallesco from pallère, be pale. ingemisco from gemĕre, sigh. obdormisco from dormire, sleep. Many inchoatives, however, are not derived from verbs, but from substantives and adjectives, e. g., |