um Lepidi makes the adjective Regiensis. It not unfre quently happened that the Romans, as may be observed in some instances already mentioned, formed adjectives from Greek names of towns in their own way, and without any regard to the Greek forms; e. g., Atheniensis instead of Athenaeus, Thebanus instead of Thebaeus (while Thebaicus is an adjective derived from the Egyptian Thebes), Eretriensis along with Eretrius, Syracusanus along with Syracusius, Eleusinus more frequently than the Greek form Eleusinius. The Greek ending εvs was most commonly changed into ensis; sometimes, however, it was retained along with the Latin form; as, Halicarnasseus and Halicarnassensis. In like manner, the Greek iτng was sometimes retained, as in Abderites; and sometimes changed into anus, as in Panormitanus, Tyndaritanus, especially in all the Greek names of towns compounded with polis; as, Neapolitanus, Megalopolitanus. The other Greek terminations are usually retained in Latin.

[§ 257.] 3. From names which originally belong to nations, adjectives are formed in icus and ius, in most cases in icus; e. g., from Afer, Britannus, Gallus, Germanus, Italus, Marsus, Medus, Celta, Persa, Scytha, Arabs, Aethiops, we have the adjectives Africus, Britannicus, Celticus, Arabicus, &c.; those in ius are formed from some Greek names; as, Syrus, Syrius; Cilix, Cilicius; Thrax, Thracius. Other names of nations are at once substantives and adjectives; as, Graecus, Etruscus, Sardus, or adjectives and, at the same time, substantives; as, Romanus, Latinus, Sabinus. Other substantive names, again, serve, indeed, as adjectives, but still form a distinct adjective in icus; as, Hispanus, Hispanicus; Appulus, Appulicus; Samnis, Samniticus. In like manner, Caeres, Veiens, Camers, Tiburs are both substantives and adjectives, but still form distinct adjectives according to the analogy of names of towns: Caeretanus, Veientanus, Camertinus, Tiburtinus.

Note.-It must be remarked that poets and the later prose writers, in general, use the substantive form also as an adjective; e. g., Marsus aper, Colcha venena, although Colchicus and Marsicus exist; Horat., Carm., iv., 6, 7, Dardanas turres quateret; vers. 12, in pulvere Teucro; vers. 18, Achivis flammis urere, instead of Achaicis. And this is not only the case with these forms of the second declension which externally resemble adjectives, but Ovid and Juvenal say Numidae leones, Numidae ursi, instead of Numidici; and Persius says, Ligus ora for Ligustica. The Greek feminine forms of names of nations are likewise used as adjectives; thus, Virgil says, Cressa pharetra for Cretica, Ausonis ora for Ausonia, and the like. The same liberty is taken by poets with the names of rivers in us. Thus, Hor.

ace, Carm., iv., 4, 38, has, Metaurum flumen; de Art. Poet., 18, flumen Rhenum. Even prose writers sometimes follow their example in this respect: Plin., Hist., Nat., iii., 16, ostium Eridanum; Caes., B. G., iii., 7, and Tacit., Ann., i., 9, Hist., iv., 12, mare Oceanum.

[§ 258.] 4. The names of countries, with some exceptions, such as the Latin names of districts, Latium and Samnium, and those borrowed from the Greek language, Aegyptus, Epirus, Persis, are themselves derived from the names of nations; e. g., Britannia, Gallia, Italia, Syria, Thracia, sometimes with slight changes, as in Sardi, Sardinia; and Siculi, Sicilia. Africa and Corsica are real adjectives, to which terra is understood. From some of these countries adjectives are formed with the terminations ensis and anus; as, Graeciensis, Hispaniensis, Siciliensis; Africanus, Gallicanus, Germanicianus, which must be carefully distinguished from the adjectives derived from the names of the respective nations. Thus, exercitus Hispaniensis signifies an army stationed in Spain, but not an army consisting of Spaniards; but spartum Hispanicum is a plant indigenous in Spain. The following are some peculiar adjectives of Greek formation: Aegyptiacus, Syriacus. Graecanicus is strangely formed, and expresses Greek origin or Greek fashion.

[§ 259.] C. From other Adjectives.

Diminutives are formed from some adjectives by the terminations ulus, olus, culus, and ellus, according to the rules which were given above, § 240, with regard to diminutive substantives. Thus we have parvulus, horridulus, nasutulus, primulus; aureolus; pauperculus, leviculus, tristiculus; misellus, novellus, pulchellus, tenellus. Double diminutives are formed from paucus and paulus; paululus or pauxillus, and. pauxillulus, a, um; and from bonus (benus), bellus and bellulus. Respecting the diminutives derived from comparatives, comp. § 104, 2, Note.

The termination aneus, appended to the stem of an adjective (and participle) in us, expresses a resemblance to the quality denoted by the primitive; e. g., supervacaneus, of a superfluous nature; but there are only few words of this kind rejectaneus, subitaneus, collectaneus, and, according to their analogy, consentaneus, praecidaneus, succidaneus.

:

[§ 260.] Besides derivation, new words are also formed

by composition. In examining such words, we may consider either the first or the second part of which a compound consists.

The first word is either a noun, a verb, or a particle. The second remains unchanged; e. g., benefacio, beneficium, maledico, satago; a contraction takes place only in nolo, from ne (for non) and volo, and in mālo, from mage (for magis) and volo. Prepositions are used more frequently than any other particles in forming compound words. Respecting their signification and the changes produced in pronunciation by the meeting of heterogeneous consonants, see Chap. LXVI.

There are only a few words in which verbs form the first part of a compound, and wherever this is the case the verb facio forms the latter part; as in arefacio, calefacio, madefacio, patefacio, condocefacio, commonefacio, assuefacio, and consuefacio. The only change in the first verbs (which belong to the second conjugation) is, that they throw off the o of the present.

When the first word is a noun (substantive or adjective), it regularly ends in a short i

patricida. armiger.

artifex.

aquilifer.

tubicen.

capripes.

carnivorus.

belligero.

causidicus.

aedifico.

particeps.

acquiparo.

ignivomus.

amplifico.

misericors.

breviloquens.

rupicapra. alienigena.

stillicidium. vilipendo.

So, also, biceps, trigemini fratres, centifolia rosa, centimanus Gyges, from centum, whereas otherwise the compositions with numerals are different; as, quadrupes, and without any change: quinqueremis. A contraction takes place in tibicen for tibiicen, from tibia and cano, whereas in tubicen and fidicen the connecting vowel is short, according to the rule, there being no i in the words tuba and fides. When the second word begins with a vowel, the connecting i is thrown out, as in magnanimus, unanimis, with which we may compare unimanus and uniformis.

Those words the parts of which are declined separately, may likewise be regarded as compounds, although they form one word only in so far as they are commonly written as such; as, respublica, jusjurandum, rosmarinus, tresviri. So, also, those of which the first word is a genitive; as, senatusconsultum, plebiscitum, duumvir, triumvir, that is, one of the duoviri or tresviri.

Note.-The Greek language regularly makes the first part of a compound, when it is a noun, end in o; e. g., φιλόσοφος, λογογράφος, σωματοφύλαξ, Συροφοίνιξ. As many such Greek compounds passed over into the Latin language, such as philosophus, philologus, graecostasis, Gallograeci, we may form similar_compounds in modern Latin, but only in the proper names; as, Francogalli, Graeco-Latinus. There is no good reason for rejecting them, if they really denote one thing which is formed by the combination of two elements.

case of

[§ 261.] The latter word in the composition determines to what part of speech the whole belongs. In compositions with particles, the second word either remains unchanged, or undergoes only a slight variation in its vowel. This variation must be here considered, especially with regard to the radical vowel of the verb; for the vowels i, o, u, ā and ē remain unchanged, as in ascribo, comminor, appono, excolo, adduco, illabor, subrepo; but a and ĕ, and the diphthong ae, frequently undergo a change: 1. ă remains only in the compounds of caveo, maneo, and traho; but in most other cases it is changed into i, e. g., constituo from statuo, accipio from capio, abjicio from jacio, arripio from rapio, incido from cado, adigo from ago; so, also, attingo from tango, confringo from frango; it is changed into e in ascendo, aspergo, confercio, refello, impertio (along with impartio). 2. è sometimes remains unchanged; as, in appeto, contego, contero, congero, but sometimes it is changed into : assideo from sedeo, abstineo from teneo, arrigo from rego, aspicio from specio. Both forms occur in the compounds of legere; e. g., perlego, read through; intelligo, understand, but intellego, too, was used in early times. 3. The diphthong ae remains unchanged only in the compounds of haereo; as, adhaero; it is changed into i in the compounds of caedo, laedo, quaero; e. g., incido, illido, inquiro. Other particulars may be gathered from the lists of irregular verbs.

In the composition of nouns with verbs, the second word undergoes more violent changes, and the rules already given respecting derivation must be taken into account here. But nouns are also formed in composition with verbs by the mere abbreviation of the ending, and without any characteristic syllable of derivation. we have from cano, tubicen; from gero, claviger, armiger; from fero, cistifer, signifer; from facio, artifex, pontifex ; from capio, princeps, municeps, particeps. Compounded adjectives are derived from verbs by the termination us, which is appended to the verbal stem: mortiferus, igni

Thus

vomus, dulcisonus, like consonus, carnivorus, causidicus; and from substantives with a very slight or no change at all; e. g., centimanus, capripes, misericors, uniformis.

Note.-When the parts of a compound word are separated by the inser tion of one or two unaccented words, it is called, by a grammatical term, a tmesis. Such a tmesis, however, occurs in prose only in the case of relative pronouns compounded with cunque, more rarely in those with libet and in adjectives or adverbs compounded with per, so that we may say, e. g., quod enim cunque judicium subierat vicit; qua re cunque potero tibi serviam; quale id cunque est; per mihi gratum feceris; per mihi, inquam, gratum, feceris

CHAPTER LXII.

ETYMOLOGY OF PARTICLES.

ADVERBS.

[§ 262.] 1. As the adjective qualifies a substantive, so the adverb qualifies a verb, an adjective (consequently a participle also), and even another adverb; e. g., prudens homo prudenter agit; felix homo feliciter vivit; eximie doctus; domus celeriter extructa; satis bene scripsit.

Note.--There are only certain cases in which an adverb can be joined with a substantive, viz.: when the substantive is used as an adjective or participle, and accordingly denotes a quality; as, populus late rex for late regnans, ruling far and wide; admodum puer erat, he was very young, or very much like a boy; or when a participle is understood to the adverb, e. g., Tacit., Ann., ii., 20, gravibus superne ictibus conflictabantur; that is, superne accidentibus, coming from above: ibid., 12, 61, nullis extrinsecus adjumentis velavit ; that is, extrinsecus ductis or assumptis, by outward or external reasons. In this manner Livy frequently uses the adverb circa in the sense of neighbouring; e. g., i., 17, multarum circa civitatum irritatis animis. An adverb may be joined with pronominal adjectives, when their adjective character predominates; as in homo plane noster, entirely ours, that is, devoted to us.

2. Adverbs belong to those parts of speech which are incapable of inflexion, for they have neither cases nor any other forms to denote the difference of persons, tenses, or moods. But an adverb approaches nearest the declinable parts of speech, inasmuch as adverbs derived from adjectives or participles take the same degrees of comparison as the latter. We have therefore, in the first place, to consider only the etymology of adverbs, and then their degrees of comparison.

With regard to their etymology, adverbs are either simple or primitive (primitiva) or derived (derivata). We shall first treat of derivative adverbs; their number is great, and certain laws are followed in their formation. [§ 263.] 3. By far the greater number of derivative ad