verbs end in ē and ter, and are derived from adjectives and participles (present active and perfect passive).

Adjectives and participles in us, a, um, and adjectives in er, a, um (that is, those which follow the second declension), make

nate.

Adverbs with the termination ē. Thus, altus, longus, molestus, doctus, emendatus, ornatus, make the adverbs alte, longe, moleste, docte, emendate, orWith regard to adjectives in er, a, um, the formation of adverbs varies according as they throw out the e in the oblique cases or retain it (see § 48 and 51), for the adverbs follow the oblique cases. Thus, liber and miser make libere and misere; but aeger (aegri) and pulcher (pulchri) make aegre and pulchre. Bonus makes the adverb běně, from an ancient form benus. Běně and mălě are the only adverbs of this class that end in a short e.

Note 1.-Inferne, below, and interne, within, although derived from adjectives in us, are used with a short e, the former by Lucretius and the latter by Ausonius, the only writers in which these adverbs respectively occur. To these we must add superne, above, in Lucretius and Horace, Carm., ii., 20, 11, though in the latter the quantity of the e is a disputed point. It cannot be ascertained whether the poets made the e in these words short by a poetical license, or whether these adverbs have anything particular. Note 2.-Some adverbs in è differ in their meaning from their respective adjectives, but they must nevertheless be regarded as derived from them. Thus, sane (from sanus, sound, well) signifies "certainly;" valde (from validus, strong, contracted from valide, which furnishes the degrees of comparison) signifies "very ;" and plane signifies "plainly," like planus, but also takes the meaning of "entirely," or "thoroughly.”

[§ 264.] 4. All other adjectives and the participles in ns (consequently all adjectives which follow the third declension) form their

Adverbs in ter,*

and retain the changes which occur in the genitive. The genitive is is changed into iter, except the genitive in ntis (from the nom. in ns), which makes the adverb in nter; e. g., elegans, eleganter; amans, amanter; conveniens, convenienter; but par, pariter; utilis, utiliter; tenuis, tenuiter; celer, ĕris, celeriter; saluber, salubriter, and so, also, ferociter, simpliciter, dupliciter, concorditer, audaciter (or more frequently contracted into audacter).

Note 1.-The termination ter serves, also, to form the adverbs aliter, otherwise, and propter, beside; the former from the original form alis, neuter

*[Pott regards the suffix ter as originally identified with the other adverbial one in tus, and he compares both with the Sanscrit ending tas. (Etymol. Forsch., vol. i., p. 91.)]—Am. Ed.

alid, and the latter from prope, being abridged for propiter. (See No. 7, note 1.) Vehementer is derived from vehemens, but takes the signification of "very," like valde; e. g., Cic., de Off., ii., 21, vehementer se moderatum praebuit. The indeclinable nequam has the adverb nequiter.

Note 2.-The adjectives mentioned in § 101, which have double terminations, us, a, um, and is, e, ought to have also a double form of their adverbs, but this is the case only in hilare and hilariter; with regard to imbecillus, it remains uncertain, as the positive of the adverb does not occur; and in the case of the other adjectives of this kind, the adverb is wanting altogether. There are, on the other hand, some adjectives in us, a, um, of which the adverbs have two forms (abundantia); as, dure, duriter; firme, 'firmiter; nave, naviter; humane, inhumane-humaniter, inhumaniter; large, largiter; luculente, luculenter; turbulente, turbulenter; and in the early lan guage many more, which are mentioned by Priscian, xv., 3. Of violentus, fraudulentus, and temulentus, adverbs in ter only exist: violenter, fraudulenter, temulenter.

[§ 265.] 5. Although in grammar an adverb is assigned to every adjective, yet the dictionary must frequently be consulted, for there are some adjectives whose very signification does not admit the formation of an adverb; as, for example, those which denote a material or colour; while, with respect to others, we can say no more than that no adverb of them is found in the writers whose works have come down to us, as of the adjectives amens, dirus, discors, gnarus, rudis, trux, imbellis, immobilis, inflexibilis, and others compounded in the same manner. Of vetus the adverbs are vestuste and antique, and of fidus, fideliter, derived from other adjectives of the same meaning. It frequently happens that adverbs exist in the degrees of comparison, without their form of the positive being found; e. g., tristiter and socorditer are not to be found, and instead of uberiter, ubertim is used; but the comparatives tristius, socordius, uberius, and the superlatives are in common use. The adverb magne does not occur, but its irregular comparative magis and the superlative maxime are of very common occurrence. Multum, plus, plurimum have no adverbs, but these neuters in some cases serve themselves as adverbs.

[§ 266.] 6. Sometimes particular cases of adjectives supply the place of the regularly formed adverbs in e: (a) of some adjectives in us, a, um, and er, a, um, the ablative singular in ō is used as an adverb; e. g., arcano and secreto, secretly; cito, quickly; continuo, immediately; crebro, frequently; falso, wrongly; gratuito, gratis; liquido, clearly; manifesto, manifestly; mutuo, as a loan, hence mutually; necessario, necessarily; perpetuo, perpetually; precario, by entreaties; raro, rarely; sedulo, sedulously;

serio, seriously; subito, suddenly; tuto, safely. To these must be added some adverbs formed from participles: auspicato, composito, consulto, directo, festinato, nec- or inopinato, improviso, iterato, merito, optato, praeparato, sortito. Along with several of these ablative adverbs, the forms in è also are occasionally used; but apart from the origin, the forms in o do not differ either in meaning or in their degrees of comparison from those in ē.

Note 1.-Vere and vero have a somewhat different sense: the regular adverb of verus, true, is vere; but vero is used in answers in the sense of "in truth," or "certainly," but it is more commonly applied as a conjunction in the sense of "but," or "however." We will explain its use in answers by an example. When I am asked, adfuistine heri in convivio? I answer, ego vero adfui; or, without a verb, ego vero, minime vero; and vero thus being merely indicative of a reply, will often be untranslatable into English. The case of certe and certo is generally different from that of vere and vero: the adverb which usually takes the meaning of its adjective is certo, while certe takes the signification of "at least," to limit an assertion; e. g., victi sumus, aut, si dignitas vinci non potest, fracti certe. Certe, however, is frequently used, also, in the sense of our "certainly," especially in the phrase certe scio, which, in Cicero, is even more frequent than certo scio. See my note on Cic., lib. i., in Verr., 1.

Note 2.-Omnino, from omnis, altogether, or in general, may also be reckoned in this class of adverbs. The etymology of oppido, very, is very doubtful.* Profecto, truly, also belongs to this class, if it be derived from profectus a, um; but if it be the same as pro facto, which is more probable, it belongs to those which we shall mention under No. 10.

[§ 267.] 7. (b) In some adjectives of the third declension the neuter singular supplies the place of the adverb; as, facile, difficile, recens, sublime, impune, and abunde, which, however, is not derived from an adjective abundis, but from abundus. To these we must add some belonging to adjectives of the second declension: ceterum, plerumque, plurimum, potissimum more frequent than potissime, multum, and paulum (for which, however, in combination with comparatives, the ablatives multo and paulo are more commonly used), nimium (the same as nimis), parum, and, lastly, the numeral adverbs primum, iterum, tertium, quartum, &c., which have also the termination o (see § 123), and postremum (o), and ultimum (o), which are formed according to the analogy of the numeral adverbs. Poets in particular, and Tacitus, who follows their example, are accustomed to use the neuter of adjectives, of the second as well as of the third declension, as adverbs; e. g., mul

66

[Probably to be traced to the Sanscrit root pad, "to go," and hence the primitive meaning would be, perhaps, "in circuit," "from on all sides," i. e., very," &c. (Pott, Etymol. Forsch., vol. i., p. 245.) Donaldson, however, connects it with the Greek ènimedov, and makes it synonymous with plane. (Varronianus, p. 62.)]—Am. Ed.

T

tum similis, acutum cernere, mite, dulce, crassum, perfidum ridere, indoctum canere, certum and incertum vigilare, triste and torvum clamare, immite sibilare, aeternum discordare, and in the plural, multa gemere, tristia ululare, crebra fe

rire.

Note 1.-We have every reason to consider the adverb prope, which has become a preposition, as the neuter of an obsolete adjective, propis ; for propter, which, as an adverb, has the same meaning, is evidently the regular adverb, being contracted from propiter, and the comparative propior and the adverb propius must likewise be traced to propis. Saepe is, perhaps, a word of the same kind, but the degrees of the adjective, saepior and saepissimus, are no longer in use.

Note 2.-Instead of difficile, however, the regular adverbial forms difficiliter and difficulter are still more common. Fuciliter is unclassical.

[§ 268.] 8. A considerable number of adverbs have the termination im, and are for the most part derived from participles; e. g., caesim, punctim, conjunctim, mixtim, contemptim, cursim, citatim, gravatim (the same as gravate), nominatim, passim (from pandere), praesertim (from prae and sero), privatim, pedetentim, raptim, sensim, carptim, separatim, statim, strictim, tractim. Adverbs of this kind, however, are formed also from other parts of speech, but they generally take the participial termination atim, even when they are not derived from nouns of the first declension: catervatim, cuneatim, gregatim, turmatim, curiatim, gradatim, ostiatim, oppidatim, provinciatim, vicatim, paulatim, singulatim, generatim, summatim, minutatim. Also, confestim (connected with festinare), furtim, singultim, tributim, ubertim, viritim, vicissim. Affatim is of doubtful etymology; interim is derived from inter; olim from the obsolete ollus, which is the same as ille.

[§ 269.] 9. A smaller class of adverbs is formed from nouns by the termination itus, generally to denote origin from that which is expressed by the primitive; as, coelitus, from heaven; funditus, from the foundation, radically; medullitus, penitus, primitus the same as primum, radicitus, stirpitus. Some are derived from adjectives; as, antiquitus, divinitus, and humanitus.

Among the same class we reckon those adverbs which end in us or itus, and are not derived from nouns, but from other parts of speech. That they are derivatives is obvious, but their signification is variously changed. Such are cominus, from a near point; eminus, from afar; intus, from within; subtus, from below; extrinsecus and intrinsecus, from without and within: mordicus (from mordere,

e. g., mordicus tenere; versus, towards (from vertere), which is commonly used as a preposition.

[§ 270.] 10. A large number of adverbs, lastly, arises from the adverbial use of different cases of substantives, and from the composition of different parts of speech. In this manner arose the adverbs of time: noctu, vesperi, mane, tempore or tempori, simul (from similis), diu and quamdiu, tamdiu, aliquamdiu, interdiu, hodie (though contracted from hoc die), quotidie, quotannis, postridie, perendie, pridie, nudius tertius (from nunc dies tertius, the day before yesterday, or the third day from the present), nudius quartus, nudius quintus, nudius tertiusdecimus, propediem, initio, principio, repente and derepente (ablative of repens), imprimis and cumprimis, protenus and protinus (from pro and the preposition tenus), aliās, actutum, commodum (just or directly, while the regular adverb commode retains the meaning "conveniently"), modo, postmodo, alternis, interdum, cummaxime, tummaxime, nunc ipsum and tum ipsum, denuo (i. e., de novo), ilicet (ire licet), illico (properly in loco), and extemplo; interea and praeterea lengthen the a, so that it is not quite certain whether they may be considered as compounds of inter, praeter, and ea, the neuter plural.* So, also, the adverbs of place: foris, foras, insuper, obviam, obiter (from ob and iter), peregre, praesto, rectā (scil. viā), unā. In hactenus, eatenus, quatenus, aliquatenus, the ablative is governed by the preposition tenus. The signification of these adverbs is originally that of locality, but they are frequently used, also, in a figurative sense.

[§ 271.] The mode or manner of an action, in answer to the question qui (an ancient ablative of quid), how? is expressed by adverbs of the same class; as, sponte, an old ablative; forte, an ablative of fors; fortuito (u), forsit, forsitan (fors sit an), forsan and fors have the same meaning as fortasse and fortassis (in prose fortasse and forsitan alone are used); nimirum, scilicet, videlicet, utpote (from ut and pote, properly "as possible," hence "namely," or "as"), dumtaxat, praeterquam, quomodo, quemadmodum, admodum, quamobrem, quare, quapropter, quantopere, tantopere, maximopere and summopere, or, separately, quanto

* Prof Key, The Alphabet, p. 77, foll., accounts for the length of the a by the very probable supposition that the original forms were posteam, inteream, praeteream, on the analogy of the existing words postquam, ante quam, praeterquam, &c.-TRANSL.