as

opere, tanto opere, &c.; quantumvis or quamvis, alioqui or alioquin, ceteroqui or ceteroquin, frustrā, to be explained by the ellipsis of via, and to be derived from fraus, fraudo; incassum, nequicquam, summum (not ad summum), tantum, solum, and tantummodo, solummodo, gratis (from gratiis, whence ingratiis), vulgo, bifariam, trifariam, multifariam and omnifariam, with which partem must be understood. Lastly, partim, which was originally the same partem, as in Liv., xxvi., 46, partim copiarum ad tumulum expugnandum mittit, partim ipse ad arcem ducit, but it is more commonly used either with a genitive or the preposition ex, in the sense of alii-alii; e. g., Cic., Phil., viii., 11, quum partim e nobis ita timidi sint, ut omnem populi Romani beneficiorum memoriam abjecerint, partim ita a republica aversi, ut huic se hosti favere prae se ferant ; and in the sense of alia-alia, as in Cic., De Off., ii., 21, eorum autem beneficiorum partim ejusmodi sunt, ut ad universos cives pertineant, partim singulos ut attingant.

[§ 272.] Note.-On the signification of some of the above-mentioned adverbs. The adverbs continuo, protinus, statim, confestim, subito, repente and derepente, actutum, illico, ilicet, extemplo, signify in general "directly" or "imme. diately," but, strictly speaking, continuo means immediately after; statim, without delay; confestim, directly; subito, suddenly, unexpectedly; protinus, farther, i. e., in the same direction in which the beginning was made; hence, without interruption; repente, and derepente, which strengthens the meaning, signifies "at once," and is opposed to sensim, gradually; e. g., Cic., de Off., i., 33, amicitias, quae minus delectent et minus probentur, magis decere censent sapientes sensim dissuere, quam repente praecidere; actutum is instantaneously, eodem actu; ilicet occurs more rarely than illico, but has almost the same meaning, "forthwith," or "the instant;" e. g., Sallust, Jug., 45, ubi formido illa mentibus decessit, ilicet lascivia atque superbia incessere; Cic., p. Muren., 10, simulatque increpuit suspicio tumultus, artes illico nostrae conticescunt. Extemplo, which is similar in its derivation (for templum is a locus religiosus), is similar also in meaning; e. g., Liv., xli., 1, alü gerendum bellum extemplo, antequam contrahere copias hostes possent, alii consulendum prius senatum censebant.

[ 273.1 Praesertim, praecipue, imprimis, cumprimis, and apprime, are generally translated by "principally;" but they have not all the same meaning. Praesertim is our "particularly," and sets forth a particular circumstance with emphasis; praecipue retains the meaning of its adjective, praecipuus being the opposite of communis; jus praecipuum, therefore, is a privilege, and opposed to jus commune, so that praecipue answers to our "especially." The sense of imprimis and cumprimis is clear from their composition-be fore or in preference to many others, principally; apprime, lastly, occurs more rarely, and qualifies and strengthens only adjectives; as, apprime doctus, apprime utilis. Admodum, also, strengthens the meaning; it properly signifies "according to measure," that is, in as great a measure as can be, e. g., admodum gratum mihi feceris; litterae tuae me admodum delectarunt. In combination with numerals it denotes approximation, and occurs frequently in Livy and Curtius; in Cicero we find only nihil admodum, that is, in reality nothing at all."

[ 274.] It is difficult to determine the difference among the words which we generally translate by "only," viz.: modo, dumtaxat, solum, tan

tum, solummodo, tantummodo. The common equivalent for "only" is modo ; solum (alone) is "merely," and points to something higher or greater; tantum is only or merely, but intimates that something else was expected, e. g., dixit tantum, non probavit. These significations are strengthened by composition: tantummodo and solummodo, the latter of which, however, occurs only in late writers. Dumtaxat is not joined with verbs, and seems to answer to our "solely;" e. g., Caes., Bell. Civ., iii., 40, peditatu dumtaxat procul ad speciem utitur, solely from afar: Curt., viii., 4, (1), quo (carmine) significabatur male instituisse Graecos, quod tropaeis regum dumtaxat nomina inscriberentur; ibid., ix., 36, (9), aestus totos circa flumen campos inundaverat, tumulis dumtaxat eminentibus, velut insulis parvis. In another signification this word is the same as certe, at least (see § 266), and denotes a limitation to a particular point; as in Cicero, nos animo dumtaxat vigemus, re familiari comminuti sumus, in courage, at least, I am not wanting; valde me Athenae delectarunt, urbs dumtaxat et urbis ornamenta et hominum benivolentia. Saltem, also, signifies "at least," but denotes the reduction of a de mand to a minimum; e. g., when I say, redde mihi libros, si non omnes, saltem tres, or, as Cicero says, eripe mihi hunc dolorem, aut minue saltem; finge saltem aliquid commode.

[275.] Frustra conveys the idea of a disappointed expectation, as in frustra suscipere labores; nequicquam that of the absence of success, as in Horat., Carm., i., 3, 21, nequicquam deus abscidit Oceano terras, si tamen impiae rates transiliunt vada. Incassum is less commonly used; it is composed of in and cassum, hollow, empty, and therefore properly signifies "into the air," or "to no purpose;" as, tela incassum jactare.

Alias and alioqui both mean "elsewhere," but alias signifies " at another time," or "in another place," whereas alioqui (like ceteroqui and ceterum) means “in other respects;" as in Livy, triumphatum de Tiburtibus, alioquin mitis victoria fuit, or "or else" (in case of a thing mentioned before not taking place), like aliter; as in Tacitus, dedit tibi Augustus pecuniam non ea lege, ut semper daretur: languescet alioqui industria. No difference in the use of alioqui and alioquin has yet been discovered. The addition or omission of the n, at least, does not appear to depend upon the letter at the beginning of the word following.

[§ 276.] 1. THE Simple or Primitive Adverbs are few in number when compared with the derivatives, especially with those derived from adjectives, and ending in è and ter. The signification of the latter depends upon that of their adjective, and has generally a very definite extent; but the primitive adverbs express the most general circumstances that are to be considered in connexion with a fact, and are indicated by the questions how? when? where? whether? and the general answers to them; but

* [Donaldson derives this adverb from taxo, -are, "to estimate," and he makes the primitive meaning of the adverb to be, "provided one esti. mates it," "estimating it accurately," i. e., "only," ""at least," "" so far as that goes." (Varronianus, p. 181.) The derivation given by Grotefend is far inferior: "duntaxat aus dum taceo (cetera), sat (est hoc)." Donaldson pronounces it absurd.]—Am. Ed.

they are for this reason deserving of particular attention, together with their compounds and derivatives.*

2. To this class belong the negative particles: non, haud, and ne, together with immo; the affirmatives: nae, quidem, and utique, certainly (from which word the negative adverb neutiquam, by no means, is formed), nempe, namely, surely; vel, in the sense of "even" (see § 108); and the interrogative cur, why? (probably formed from quare or cui rei): the words which express, in a general way, the mode of an action, viz.: paeně, ferē, and fermē, nearly, almost; temere, at random; ritě, duly, according to custom; vix, scarcely; nimis (and nimium, see § 267), too much; satis or sat, enough, sufficiently; saltem, at least; sic and ită, so, thus; and item and itidem (which are derived from ita), just so, and the double form identidem, which, however, has assumed the meaning of a particle of time, "constantly," "one time like the other;" ut or uti, as, and hence sicut or sicuti; quam, how much; tam, so much; tamquam, like; périnde and proinde (derived from inde), as though, like; secus, otherwise, differently; the adverbs of place: uspiam and usquam, somewhere; nusquam, nowhere; procul, far; prope, near (§ 267, note); ubi, where? ibi, there; unde, whence? inde, hence, together with their numerous compounds and correlatives, of which we shall speak presently; the adverbs of time: quando, when? with its compounds aliquando, once; quandoque, at some time; quandocunque, whenever; quondam, formerly (contains the original relative quum, which has become a conjunction); nunc, now; tunc and tum, then; unquam, ever; nunquam, never; jam, already; etiam (from et and jam) and quoque, also o; etiamnunc and etiamtum, still, yet; semel, once; bis, twice (the other adverbial numerals, see Chap. XXXIII.); saepe, often; usque, ever; heri or here, yesterday; cras, to-morrow; olim, formerly; mox, soon after; dudum, previously; pridem, long since; tandem, at last or length; demum, not until; from inde are derived deinde and éxinde, or abridged dein and exin,

* With regard to the following list of particles, which, from their great importance towards understanding the ancient writers, has been drawn up with care, we must observe that by the term primitive adverbs we do not understand those of which no root is to be found, but those which cannot in any useful or practical way be included among the classes of derivative adverbs mentioned before. Á more deep etymological investigation would lead us into too slippery ground, on which we could expect but little thanks either from teachers or pupils.

thereupon, afterward; súbinde,* immediately after, or repeatedly; deinceps, in succession; denique, lastly; further, the adverbs with the suffix per: semper, always; nuper, lately; parumper and paulisper, for a short time; tantisper, for so long, commonly to indicate a short time, "for so short a time."

Most of the prepositions are originally adverbs, but as they usually take the case of a substantive after them, they are regarded as a distinct class of the parts of speech. But they must still be looked upon as adverbs when they are joined with a verb without a case; as in Virgil, Pone subit conjunx, behind there follows my wife."

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Hence it happens that clam, secretly, and coram, in the presence of, are generally reckoned among the prepositions, whereas palam (propălam), publicly, is universally called an adverb, though it is formed precisely in the same manner. Ante and post, when used as adverbs, generally have the lengthened forms antea and postea (also antehac and posthac), but occur as adverbs, also, without any change of form.

Note 1.-We must not pass over unnoticed the transition of particles of place into particles of time, which occurs in other languages also. This accounts for the use of hic, ibi, ubi, where we should use an adverb expressive of time. Nor can we wonder at several of these adverbs appearing frequently as conjunctions (in which character they will have to be mentioned again in Chap. LXVII.), for whenever they serve to connect sentences, they become, grammatically speaking, conjunctions; but when within a sentence they denote a circumstance connected with a verb, they are real adverbs. Some of them are used in both characters.

[ 277.] Note 2.-The Signification of the above Primitive Adverbs. The ordinary negation is non; haud adds to the negation a special subjective colouring, with very different meanings-either "not at all," or "not exactly." The comic writers use this negation frequently, and in all kinds of combinations; but the authors of the best age limit its use more especially to its combination with adjectives and adverbs denoting a measure; e. g., haud multum, haud magnum, haud parvus, haud mediocris, haud paulo, haud procul, haud longe, especially haud sane, in connexion with other words; as, haud sane facile, res haud sane difficilis, haud sane intelligo; also, haud quisquam, haud unquam, haud quaquam, by which combination something more is expressed than by the simple negation. In connexion with verbs, haud appears much less frequently, and, on the whole, only in the favourite phrase haud scio an, which is the same as nescio an, until la ter writers, such as Livy and Tacitus, again make unlimited application of it.

Ne does not belong to this place as a conjunction in the sense of "in order that not," but only in so far as it is used for non in the connexion of ne-quidem, not even, and with imperatives; e. g., Tu ne cede malis, sed contra audentior ito, do not yield to misfortunes. Hence nec (neque), also, must be mentioned here, because it is used instead of ne-quidem, seldom with

* The accent on the antepenultima for the compounds of inde is neces sary, according to Priscian, p. 1008, (618 Kr.)

Cicero, but more frequently with Quintilian; e. g., ii., 13, 7, alioqui nec scriberem; v., 10, 119, alioqui nec tradidissem; i., v., 18, extra carmen non de prehendas, sed nec in carmine vitia ducenda sunt.

Immo signifies "no," but with this peculiarity that, at the same time, something stronger is put in the place of the preceding statement which is denied; e. g., Cic., ad Att., ix., 7, causa igitur non bona est? Immo optima, sed agetur foedissime; de Off., iii., 23, si patriam prodere conabitur pater, silebitne filius? Immo vero obsecrabit patrem, ne id faciat. This increase may be sometimes expressed in English by "nay," or "nay even." But this does not justify the assertion that immo is an affirmative adverb.

[§ 278.] Quidem is commonly used to connect sentences, and must then be looked upon as a conjunction; but it is employed also as an adverb to set forth a word or an idea with particular emphasis, and then answers to our "certainly" or "indeed." Very frequently, however, especially with pronouns, it only increases their force by the emphasis; e. g., optare hoc quidem est, non docere, this I call wish, but not teach; praecipitare istud quidem est, non descendere. Hence it also happens that, on the other hand, when quidem is necessary to connect sentences, a pronoun is added, for the sake of quidem, which might otherwise be dispensed with. Cicero, e. g., says: Oratorias exercitationes non tu quidem, ut spero, reliquisti, sed certe philosophiam illis anteposuisti. From quidem arose equidem, which is considered to be a compound of ego and quidem, and is used exclusively in this sense by Cicero, Virgil, and Horace; but in others, and more particularly in later authors, it occurs precisely in the same sense as quidem; e. g., Sallust., Cat., 52, 16, quare vanum equidem hoc consilium est; Curt., v., 35, certiora deinde cognoscit ex Bagistane Babylonio, non equidem vinctum regem, sed in periculo esse, aut mortis aut vinculorum.

Nempe answers pretty nearly to our "surely," and frequently assumes a sarcastic meaning, when we refute a person by concessions which he is obliged to make, or by deductions. It is never used for the merely explanatory "namely," or "that is," which, in the case of simple ideas, is either not expressed at all, or by the forms is (ea, id) est, qui est, dico, or intelligi volo, or by the adverbs scilicet and videlicet. Respecting the manner in which it is expressed in the connexion of propositions, see § 345.

I

[ 279.] The adverbs paeně, ferē, and fermē, to which we may add propě, on account of its meaning (from 267, note), all serve to limit a statement, but there are certain differences in their application. Paene and prope approach each other nearest: paene being almost and prope nearly; and thus we say in Latin paene dixerim and prope dixerim in quite the same sense, might almost say. As prope contains the idea of approximation, so paene denotes a degree. Thus we say hi viri prope aequales sunt, are nearly of the same age; and Caesar, on the other hand, says, non solum in omnibus (Galliae) civitatibus, sed paene etiam in singulis domibus factiones sunt, "but almost in every family," which is more than the factions in the towns. Propemodum, in a certain degree, is formed from prope. Fere and fermè differ from the other primitive adverbs, in regard to their long e, for the oth ers end in a short e. They, therefore, seem to be derived from adjectives; but the derivation from ferus leads to no results. The two words differ only in form, and are used in inaccurate and indefinite statements, especially with round numbers and such notions as may be reduced to a number. We say centum fere homines aderant to express our "somewhere about one hundred;" paene or prope centum, nearly a hundred, implying thereby that there should have been exactly one hundred. And so, also, fere om nes, fere semper; and with a verb, sic fere fieri solet, so it mostly or generally happens, the same as fere semper fit. Hence it is frequently used as a mere form of politeness, when there can be no doubt about the correctness of a statement; as in quoniam fere constat, as it is a fact, I presume. [ 280.] Temere, at random, is opposed to a thing which is done consulto, or deliberately; hence the expressions inconsulte ac temere, temere et impru denter, temere et nullo consilio. Combined with non, temere acquires (but not