Greek words in which the o represents the Greek w, as in geometria. 5. u and y are short, as in quadrupes, Polyphemus. 4. In regard to the quantity of Final Syllables, the following special rules must be observed: A. MONOSYLLABIC WORDS. [§ 24.] 1. All monosyllables ending in a vowel are long, except the particles which are attached to other words: que, vě, cě, ně, tě (tutě), psě (reapsě), and ptě, (suoptě). Note.-Ne, the interrogative particle, is always short, and is attached to other words as an enclitic, as in videsne, dost thou see? or dost thou not see? In the ordinary pronunciation it was still more shortened by throwing off the vowel, as in credon' tibi hoc nunc ? and, in case of an s preceding, this letter was likewise dropped, as ain' tu? for aisne tu? satin' recte? satin' salvae? for satisne recte? satisne salvae? The conjunction nē (lest, or that not) is long. Respecting ne, as an inseparable negative particle in compositions, see above, § 23. 2. Among the monosyllables ending in a consonant, the substantives are long, as sōl, vīr, fūr, jūs; and all those are short which are not substantives, as ut, ět, něc, în, ăn, ăd, quid, sed, quis, quot. The following substantives, however, are short: cor, fel, měl, vir, and os (gen. ossis), and probably, also, mas, a male being, and vas, a surety, since they have the a short in the genitive: măris, vădis. Some words, on the other hand, are long, although they are not substantives; as ēn, non, quin, sin, crās, plūs, cur, and pār, with its compounds, and also the adverbs in ic or uc, as sic, hic, huc. The monosyllabic forms of declension and conjugation follow the general rules about the quantity of final syllables, and dās, flēs, and scis, accordingly, are long, while dăt, flet, and scit are short; his, quōs, quās are long, like the terminations ōs and as in declension. So, also, the ablative singular hōc and hāc. The nominative hic and the neuter hoc, on the other hand, although the vowel is naturally short, are commonly used as long, because the pronunciation was hice and hocc (as a compensation for the ancient form hice, hoce). The abridged imperatives retain the quantity of the root, so that dic and dūc are long, while fuc and fer are short. * Note. We formerly thought, with other grammarians, that fac was long, and that we ought to read face in those passages in which it is found short. (See Heinsius and Burmann on Ovid, Heroid., ii., 98.) But there is no satisfactory evidence for fac being long, and the instances quoted by Vossius (Aristarch., ii., 29) have now been altered for other reasons. * [Compare Anthon's Lat. Pros., p. 82, not.]—Am. Ed. B. FINAL SYLLABLES IN WORDS OF TWO OR MORE SYLLABLES. [§ 25.] 1. Such as terminate in a Vowel. A is short in nouns, except in the ablative singular of the first declension and in the vocative of Greek proper names in as which belong to the first or third declension, e. g., Æneā, Pallā. A is long in verbs and indeclinable words, such as amā, frustrā, ergā, anteā, and postea (except when separated into post ea), except ita, quiă, eiă, and the imperative pută in the sense of "for example."* In the indeclinable numerals, as triginta and quadraginta, the a is sometimes long and sometimes short. E is short, as in patrě, currě, nempĕ; but long in the ablative of the fifth declension and in the imperative of the second conjugation; the poets, however, and especially the comic ones, sometimes shorten the imperative of the words cave, habe, jube, mane, tace, vale, and vide.† Adverbs in e, formed from adjectives of the second declension, are likewise long, as docte, recte: also, ferè, fermē, and ohe (but bene and male are always short, and inferne and superne sometimes), and Greek words of the first declension terminating in e, as crambē, Circē, and Greek plurals, as Tempe and cetē. [§ 26.] I is long. It is short only in the vocative of Greek words in is, e. g., Alexì, in the Greek dative in i, which, however, occurs seldom, as in Palladi, Tethyi, and in nisi, quasi, and cui, when it is used as a dissyllable. The i is common or doubtful in mihĩ, sibž, ibi and ubž; in compounds we commonly find ibidem, and always ubique, whereas in ubivis and ubinam the i is always short. În uti, for ut, the i is long, but in the compounds utinam and utique short. O is common in the present tense of all the conjugations, and in the nominative of the third declension, as in sermo, virgo; the Greek words in o (w, Gen. ovç), however, remain long in Latin, as Iō, Didō. But o is long in the second declension, as in lectō, and in adverbs formed from * [Compare Anthon's Lat. Pros., p. 67, not.]—Am. Ed. +[The apparent anomaly in cave is easily explained by the supposition that anciently two forms of the verb were in use, one belonging to the second, and the other to the third conjugation, just as we find both ferveo and fervo; fulgeo and fulgo; oleo and olo, &c. (Struve, über die Lat. Decl., &c., p. 189.) With regard, however, to habe, jubě, maně, tace, &c., the evidence of their employment seems very doubtful. The question will be found discussed by Ramsay (Lat. Pros., p. 44, seqq.)]—Am. Ed. nouns and pronouns by means of this termination (see § 264); e. g., vulgō, falsō, paulō, eō, quò, and also ergo, iccirco, quando, and retro. In the poets, however, gerunds* and the following adverbs are sometimes short: ergo, in the sense of "therefore," porro, postremo, sero, quando (the compound quandoquidem occurs only with a short o). The adverbs modo (with all its compounds, and also quo modo), cită, illico, and immo, and also cedo (for dic or da) ego, duo, and octo, are always short, whereas ambō is gen erally long. Note.--O, as a termination of verbs, has been here described as common; it must, however, be observed that it is naturally long, and is used so b most poets of the best age, such as Virgil, Horace (in his Odes), and Ovid (in his Metamorphoses), in their serious productions. In their lighter poems, however, and in the works of later poets, it is also used shor according to the example of the comic poets, though this was done at first less frequently, until at last it became the prevalent custom to make the o short. (See Lennep's elaborate note on Ovid, Heroid., xv., 32, reprinted in the edition of Loers.) The same is the case with o in substantives of the third declension, for the earlier poets always prefer using it as a long syllable. U is always long, as in diū, vultū, cornū.‡ 2. Such as terminate in a Consonant. [§ 27.] All final syllables ending in a consonant are short,§ and special rules are required only for those ending in the sibilant s. Note. The dissyllabic compounds of par retain the quantity of the single word, and the cases of istic and illic follow those of hic. (See § 131.) Greek words retain their original quantity in their final syllables, except those in or, as Hector, Nestor, which are short in Latin, although in Greek they end in wp. The only exceptions in genuine Latin words are liên (formed from lienis, which is still used) and alec. [§ 28.] As is long in Latin words, with the exception * [The final o in gerunds is, perhaps, never found short, except in writers subsequent to the Augustan age. (Consult Heyne ad Tibull., iii., 6, 3.)]-Am. Ed. [The final o is, perhaps, never found short in ergo, ideo, immo, porro, postremo, sero, vero, except in writers subsequent to the Augustan age. (Ramsay, Lat. Pros., p. 58.)]-Am. Ed. [Indu, the old form of in, and nenu for non, both Lucretian words, have the u short. The u continues short, also, in those words which naturally end in short us, and are only deprived of the s by the more ancient mode of pronunciation, in order to preserve the syllable from becoming long by its position before a consonant at the beginning of the following word; as, plenu' for plenus, bonu' for bonus, &c.]—Am. Ed. [The language of the text is rather too brief here. The student will do well to consult some treatise specially devoted to matters of prosody.] -Am. Ed. of anǎs, anătis; but the Greek nominatives in as, which make their genitives in ados, and in Latin in adis, such as Ilias, Pallas, and the Greek accusatives plural of the third declension, are always short, as in heroăs. Es is long, e. g., ames, leges, audies, patrēs. But Latin nominatives in es, which increase in the genitive, and have their penultima short, are themselves short; e. g., milès, militis; seges, segětis (except abies, aries, paries, Cerēs, and the compounds of pes); also the nominatives plural of Greek words, which increase in the genitive singular, as Amazones, Troades;* the preposition penes and the second person of the compounds of sum, es, e. g., abès, potes; but the es (for edis) from edo is long. (See § 212.) ES 29.] Is is generally short, but long in all the cases of the plural, as armis, vobis, omnis (accus. for omnes); in the second person singular of verbs whose plural is ītis, that is, in the fourth conjugation, and in possīs, velīs, nolīs, malis, and vis (thou wilt), with its compounds, such as mavis, quivis, quamvis. Respecting the quantity of is in the perfect subjunctive and in the second future, see § 165. Is, lastly, is long in proper names of the third declension, which, increasing in the genitive, have their penultima long; e. g., Quiris, itis; Samnis, itis; Salamis, inis; Simois, entis.t Os is long, as in nepōs, honōs, virōs; it is short only in compos and impos, and in Greek words and cases in os, e. g., Delos, Erinnyōs. Us is short in verbs and nouns except monosyllables, but long in the genitive singular, in the nominative and accusative plural of the fourth declension, and in the nom inatives of the third, which have u in the genitive, as virtūs, ūtis; palūs, ūdis. It is also long when it represents the Greek ovç, as in Panthus, Melampus, Sapphus. (Comp. § 59.) Ys, in Greek words, is short, as Halys, Tethys, chlamys, [The final es is likewise short in Greek neuters; as, cacoëthes, hippo manes, &c. But nominatives and vocatives plural in es, from Greek nominatives forming the genitive singular in eos, are long; as, hæresēs, crises, phrases, &c.]-Am. Ed. + [The noun vis is also long, and likewise the adverbs foris, gratis ingratis. It must be observed that foris is, in fact, the ablative plural of fora, "a door;" and that gratis and ingratis are contracted datives plura for gratis and ingratiis, which are found in the open form in the comic writers.]-Am. Ed. [And also in os, " a bone," and its compound, erõs.]—Am Ed and long only in the few instances in which the yis of the genitive is contracted into ÿs. [§ 30.] 5. Syllables (as was remarked in the beginning of this chapter) may become long by their vowel being followed by two or more consonants, that is, by their position: x and z are accounted as two consonants. (See above, § 3.) A position may be formed in three ways: 1. When a syllable ends in two or three consonants, as in ex, est, mens, stirps. 2. When the first syllable ends in a consonant and the second begins with one, as in ille, arma, mentis, in nova. 3. When the first syllable ends in a vowel, and the one following begins with two consonants. By the first and second kinds of position, a syllable which is naturally short becomes long. Exceptions to this rule occur only in the comic poets, who frequently neglect position, especially that of the second kind. Note.-In syllables long by position we usually pronounce the vowel itself short; but the ancients in their pronunciation even here distinguished the long vowel from the short one, just as in Greek we must pronouncе πрáσσw with a long a, because it is naturally long, as we see from πрağıç and πрãyua. With regard to other vowels, we are assisted by the Greek signs n, w, and e, o; but in Latin words, unless we can be guided by verse, we can derive information only from etymology and from the statements of the ancient grammarians. Thus they distinguished est (he is) from ēst (for edit), and they pronounced the vowel in con and in, when followed in compounds by for s, as in infelix, insanus, consul, confecit. (See Cicero, Orat., 48.) Dens, gens, mens, fons, frons, and mons were uttered with a long vowel, and, in like manner, pax, lex, lux, rex, and vox, because they have their vowel long in the genitive also (plebs, plebis, belongs to the same class); whereas fax, nex, nix, nur were pronounced with their vowel short, because they form the genitive facis, necis, &c. (Comp. Schneider, Elementarl., p. 108, foll.) [§ 31.] In the third kind of position (made by two consonants beginning the syllable after a vowel), we must distinguish as to whether it occurs within a word or between two words, and whether the consonants are muta cum liquida, or not. Within a word a syllable ending in a short vowel is regularly made long, when it is followed by two consonants, or x and z, as in a-ptus, fa-ctus, a-xis; but when the first consonant is a mute and the second a liquid (which is called positio debilis), they make the vowel only common, according to the pronunciation in prose. Thus, we may pronounce either cerebrum, lugubris, mediocris, integri, or cerebrum, lugūbris, mediocris, integri. Ovid, for example, says: Et primo similis volucri, mox vera volucris. (Metam., xiii., 607.) Between two words the vowel is rarely lengthened, except in the arsis of a verse. The |