what way? we answer by the demonstratives hac, istac, illac, which are properly ablatives, the word via being understood.

Note 1.-Cicero thus writes to Atticus, who was staying at Rome, while he himself lived in exile at Thessalonica, in Macedonia (iii., 12): Licet tibi significarim, ut ad me venires, id omittam_tamen; intelligo te re istic prodesse, hic ne verbo quidem levare me posse. Istic, where you are, that is, at Rome, you can be really useful to me; hic, here where I live, that is, at Thessalonica, you would not even be able to comfort me with a word. In this manner the Romans, in their letters, briefly and distinctly express the localities of the writer and the person addressed, as well as of the persons written about.

[§ 292.] Note 2.-Adhuc expresses the duration of time down to the pres ent moment, and therefore answers to our "still," when it signifies "until now" (we also find usque adhuc); and, strictly speaking, it should not be confounded either with etiamnunc, which does not contain the idea of duration of time, and answers to the question when? or with usque eo and etiamtum, which are the corresponding expressions of the past time. But even good authors apply the peculiar meaning of the word to the pres ent, and use adhuc, also, of the relative duration of the time past; e. g., Liv., xxi., 48, Scipio quamquam gravis adhuc vulnere erat, tamen-profectus est; Curt., vii., 19, praecipitatus ex equo barbarus adhuc tamen repugnabat. yet" is expressed by nondum, even in speaking of the present, more rare. ly by adhuc non.

"Not

CHAPTER LXIV.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

[§ 293.] 1. THE Comparison of Adverbs is throughout dependant upon the comparison of adjectives, for those adverbs only have degrees of comparison which are derived from adjectives or participles by the termination ē (0) or ter; and wherever the comparison of adjectives is wanting altogether or partly, the same deficiency occurs in their adverbs.

2. The comparative of adverbs is the same as the neuter of the comparative of adjectives (majus only has the adverb magis, § 265), and the superlative is derived from the superlative of the adjectives by changing the termination us into è; e. g., doctior, doctius; elegantior, eleganti us; emendatior, emendatius; superlative, doctissimus, doctissime; elegantissime, emendatissime; summus, summe. The positives in o (e. g., cito, raro) also make the superlative in e; meritissimo and tutissimo, however, are more commonly used than meritissime and tutissime.

Note. Thus the positive (see § 111) is wanting of deterius, deterrime ; potius, potissime (we more frequently find potissimum); prius, primum or primo (for prime is not used, but apprime, principally); the positive ociter, to which ocius and ocissime belong, occurs very rarely, since the compara

tive ocius has, at the same time, the meaning of a positive. Of valde, very (contracted from valide, 263), the degrees validius and validissime do not, indeed, occur in Cicero, but are used in the silver age of the language.

[§ 294.] 3. The primitive adverbs, and those derived from other words by the terminations im and tus, together with the various adverbs enumerated in § 270, foll., that is, in general all adverbs which are not derived from adjectives and participles by the endings e (or o instead of it) and ter, do not admit the degrees of comparison. The only exceptions are diu and saepe: diutius, diutissime; saepius, saepissime. Nuper has a superlative nuperrime, but no comparative, and satis and temperi have the comparatives satius (also used as a neuter adjective) and temperius (in Cicero). Respecting secius, the comparative of secus, see § 283.

Note.-There are a few diminutive adverbs: clanculum from clam, primulum from primum, celeriuscule, saepiuscule, from the comparatives celerius and saepius. Belle, prettily, is a din inutive of bene, and from belle are derived bellus and bellissimus, without a comparative, and hence the adverb bellissime.

CHAPTER LXV.

PREPOSITIONS.*

[§ 295.] 1. PREPOSITIONS are indeclinable words, or, to use the grammatical term, particles, which express the relations of nouns to one another, or to verbs; e. g., a town in Italy; a journey through Italy; my love for you; the first century after Christ; he came out of his house; he lives near Berlin; on the Rhine, &c. They govern in

*["Prepositions are pronouns in the strictest sense of the word. They express relations of place, and in their ordinary use are employed to denote the relative positions of visible objects. Grammarians tell us that they govern cases, and it is the prevailing practice to arrange them according to the cases which they are said to govern. But this is palpably false; for, in all languages which have any inflections, a case may express by itself any relation which the addition of a preposition could give to it, and, in languages which, like the Sanscrit, have a complete assortment of cases, many relations of place are invariably expressed by the cases without any particle prefixed. Such would have been the fact in the Greek and Latin languages too, but the rules of euphony, convenience, the influence of writing, and a multitude of other causes, have contributed to mutilate the terminations of the nouns, as well as of the verbs, and thus preposi tions, the force of which was originally included in the case endings, have come to be prefixed for the sake of greater distinctness, just as in Greek the particular noun is placed after the pronoun, called the article, in lepetitions, and just as the nominative case is prefixed to the verb." (Donaldson's New Cratylus, p. 212.)]—Am. Ed.

Latin either the accusative or ablative, and some (though mostly in a different sense) both cases. Their Latin name is derived from the fact of their being placed, with a few exceptions, before their noun. We have already observed (Chap. LXII.) that a considerable number of these particles are properly adverbs, but are justly reckoned among the prepositions, as they more or less frequently govern a case. Apart from their etymology, and considering only their practical application in the language, we have the following classes of prepositions:

1. Prepositions with the Accusative.

Ad, to.
Apud, with, near.

Ante, before (in regard to both time and place).
Adversus and adversum, against.

Cis, citra, on this side.

Circa and circum, around, about.

Circiter, about (indefinite time or number).

Contra, against.

Erga, towards.

Extra, without.

Infra, beneath, below (the contrary of supra).

Inter, among, between.

Intra, within (the contrary of extra).

Juxta, near, beside.

Ob, on account of.

Penes, in the power of.

Per, through.

Pone, behind.

Secundum, after (in time or succession), in accordance with; as, secundum naturam vivere.

Supra, above.

Trans, on the other side.

Versus (is put after its noun), towards a place; c. g., in Galliam versus, Massiliam versus.

Ultra, beyond.

2. Prepositions with the Ablative.

A, ab, abs (a before consonants; ab before vowels and

some consonants; and abs only in the combination of abs te, for which, however, a te, also, is used), from, by. Absque, without (obsolete).

Coram, before, or in the presence of.

Cum, with.

De, down from, concerning.

E and ex (e before consonants only, ex before both vowels and consonants), out of, from.

Prae, before, owing to.

Pro, before, for.

Sine, without.

Tenus (is put after its noun), as far as, up to.

3. Prepositions with the Accusative and Ablative. In, with the accus.-1, in, on, to, to the question Whither ?-2, against. With the ablat., in, on, to the question Where?

Sub, with the accus.-1, under, to the question Whither? 2, about or towards, in an indefinite statement of time; as, sub vesperam, towards evening. With the ablat., under, to the question Where? Desub is also used in this sense.

Super, with the accus., above, over; with the ablat., upon, concerning, like de. Subter, under, beneath, is used with the accusative, whether it expresses being in or motion to a place; it rarely occurs with the ablative, and is in general little used. Remarks upon the Signification of the Prepositions. [ 296.] 1. Prepositions with the Accusative.

Ad denotes in general an aim or object both in regard to time and place, and answers to the questions Whither? and Till when? e. g., venio, proficiscor ad te; Sophocles ad summam senectutem tragoedias fecit. Hence it also denotes a fixed time; as, ad horam, at the hour; ad diem, on the day fixed upon; ad tempus facere aliquid, to do a thing at the right time. In other cases ad tempus signifies" for a time;" e. g., perturbatio animi plerumque brevis est et ad tempus. Sometimes, also, it denotes the approach of time; as, ad lucem, ad vesperam, ad extremum, towards daybreak, evening, towards the end; and the actual arrival of a certain time, as in Livy, ad prima signa veris profectus, at the first sign of spring.

Ad, in a local sense, signifies "near a place," to the question Where? as, ad urbem esse, to be near the town; ad portas urbis ; cruentissima pugna ad lacum Trasimenum; pugna navalis ad Tenedum; urbs sita est ad mare; it is apparently the same as in, in such phrases as ad aedem Bellonae; or with the omission of the word aedem: ad Opis; ad omnia deorum templa gratulationem fecimus; negotium habere ad portum; ad forum; but in all these cases there is an allusion to buildings or spaces connected with the places named. With numerals ad is equivalent to our "to the amount of" or "nearly;" e. g., ad ducentos, to the amount of two hundred, or nearly two

hundred, and without any case it is an adverb like circiter, as in Cæsar, occisis ad hominum milibus quatuor, reliqui in oppidum rejecti sunt; Liv., viii., 18, ad viginti matronis per viatorem accitis (ablat. absol.); iv., 59, quorum ad duo milia et quingenti capiuntur. The phrase omnes ad unum, ad unum omnes perierunt, means, "even to the very last man," including the last himself. Ad, denoting an object or purpose, is of very common occurrence, and hence arises its signification of "in respect of ;" e. g., vidi forum comitiumque adornatum, ad speciem magnifico ornatu, ad sensum cogitationemque acerbo et lugubri; or facinus ad memoriam posteritatis insigne; homo ad labores belli impiger, ad usum et disciplinam peritus; ad consilia prudens, &c. But this preposition is used also in figurative relations to express a model, standard, and object of comparison, where we say "according to," or "in comparison with;" as, ad modum, ad effigiem, ad similitudinem, ad speciem alicujus rei, ad normam, ad exemplum, ad arbitrium et nutum, ad voluntatem alicujus facere aliquid; persuadent mathematici, terram ad universum coeli complexum quasi puncti instar obtinere. Particular phrases are, ad verbum, word for word; nihil ad hanc rem, ad hunc hominem, nothing in comparison with this thing or this man.

[§ 297.] Apud, "with," both in its proper and figurative sense; e. g., with me the opinion of the multitude has no weight, apud me nihil valet hominum opinio. In connexion with names of places it signifies "near," like ad; e. g., Epaminondas Lacedaemonios vicit apud Mantineam; male pugnatum est apud Caudium, apud Anienem (the name of a river). It must, however, be observed that the early writers sometimes (see my note on Cic., in Verr., iv., 22), and Tacitus and later authors frequently, use apud for in, and not merely for ad; as, Augustus apud urbem Nolam extinctus est ; statua apud theatrum Pompeii locatur; apud Syriam morbo absumptus est; apud senatum dixit, and in many other passages, in which the context leaves no doubt. In apud praetorem and apud judices the preposition must likewise be taken to denote the place of the judicial transactions; we use in this case "before," which, however, cannot be rendered in Latin by ante. Apud is used, also, with the names of authors, instead of in with the name of their works; as, apud Xenophontem, apud Terentium, apud Ciceronem legitur, &c., but not in Xenophonte, because in Latin the name of an author is not used for that of his works, as in our language.

Ante, "before," denotes also a preference; as, ante omnia hoc mihi maxime placet, above all other things; hic erat gloria militari ante omnes, he excelled all.

[ 298.] Cis and citra are commonly used in reference to place; e. g., cis Taurum montem, and are the contrary of trans; citra Rubiconem, on this side of the Rubicon. But in later, though good prose writers (Quintilian, Pliny), it frequently occurs for sine, "without," as in citra invidiam nominare; citra musicen grammatice non potest esse perfecta nec dici citra scientiam musices potest.

Circum is the more ancient, and circa the later form; Cicero uses them both in the sense of "around" (a place); and circum, with the strengthened meaning, "all around;" e. g., urbes quae circum Capuam sunt, and urbes circa Capuam; homines circum and circa se habere; terra circum axem se convertit; homo praetorem circum omnia fora sectatur. The phrases circum amicos, circum vicinos, circum villas, circum insulas mittere, signify to send around to one's friends, &c. Circa is used, besides, of time also, in the sense of sub (but not by Cicero); Livy and Curtius, e. g., say, circa lucis ortum, circa eandem horam, circa Idus. Circa in the sense of concerning, like de, erga, and adversus, the Greek kará, occurs only in the silver age of the language, in Quintilian, Pliny, and Tacitus; e. g., varia circum haec opinio; circa deos et religiones negligentior; publica circa bonas artes socordia. Circiter is used, it is true, with an accusative, as in circiter meridiem, about noon; circiter Calendas, circiter Idus Martias, circiter octavam horam, but it is more frequently an adverb.

[§ 299.] Adversus and contra originally signify "opposite to;" but thev