Propositions, one of which is negative and the other affirmative, "on the one hand, but not on the other," or "not on the one hand, but on the other," are connected by

et-neque (nec) both of very frequent occurrence. neque (nec)-et

nec (neque)-que, occurs occasionally.

[§ 339.] Our "either-or," is expressed by aut-aut, denoting an opposition between two things, one of which excludes the other, or by vel-vel, denoting that the opposition between two things is immaterial in respect of the result, so that the one need not exclude the other. E. g., Catiline, in Sallust, says to his comrades, vel imperatore vel milite me utimini, that is, it is indifferent to me in which capacity you may make use of me, only do make use of me. A similar idea is described more in detail by Terence, Eun., ii., 3, 28, Hanc tu mihi vel vi, vel clam, vel precario fac tradas: mea nihil refert, dum potiar modo; i. e., you may effect it even in a fourth way, if you like. Sive-sive is the same as vel si-vel si, and therefore transfers the meaning of vel-vel to the cases in which it is applied; e. g., Cic., Illo loco libentissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum cogito, sive aliquid scribo aut lego. If there is no verb, and nouns only are mentioned in opposition to each other, an uncertainty is expressed as to how a thing is to be called; e. g., Cic., Tusc., ii., 14, Cretum leges, quas sive Juppiter sive Minos sanxit, laboribus erudiunt juventutem, i. e., I do not know whether I am to say Juppiter or Minos; ad Quint. Frat., i., 2, His in rebus si apud te plus auctoritas mea, quam tua sive natura paulo acrior, sive quaedam dulcedo iracundiae, sive dicendi sal facetiaeque valuissent, nihil sane esset, quod nos poe

niteret.

[§ 340.] 2. The following express a comparison, "as," "like," "than as if" (conjunctiones comparativae); ut or uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, the poetical ceu, quam, tamquam (with and without si), quasi, ut si, ac si, together with ac and atque, when they signify "as."

Note.-Ac and atque are used in the sense of "as," or "than," after the adverbs and adjectives which denote similarity or dissimilarity: aeque, juxta, par and pariter, perinde and proinde, pro eo, similis, dissimilis and similiter, talis, totidem, alius and aliter, contra, secus, contrarius; e. g., non aliter scribo ac sentio; aliud mihi ac tibi videtur; saepe aliud fit atque existimamus; simile fecit atque alii; cum totidem navibus rediit atque erat profectus. Quam after these words (as in Tacit., Ann., vi., 30, perinde se quam Tiberium falli potuisse) is not often used, except in the case of a negative particle being joined with alius; e. g., Cicero, virtus nihil aliud est, quam in se perfecta et ad summum perducta natura, where nisi might be used instead of quam. Respecting proinde ac, instead of the more frequent perinde ac, see above, § 282. Et and que do not occur in this connexion like ac and atque ; and wherever this might appear to be the case, from the position of the words, as in Sallust, juxta bonos et malos interficere; suae hostiumque vitae juxta pepercerant; and in Cicero, nisi aeque amicos et nosmetipsos diligimus, the et and que retain their original signification "and" but where the words compared are separated, as in reip. juxta ac sibi consuluerunt; or where propositions are compared, as in Cic., de Fin., iv., 12, similem habeat vultum ac si ampullam perdidisset, the ac or ut has justly been restored in the passages in which formerly et was read.

Ac is used for quam, after comparatives in poetry, in Horace generally, and in a few passages, also, of late prose writers; but never in Cicero; e. g., Horat., Epod., xv., 5, artius atque hedera; Serm. i., 2, 22, ut non se pejus cruciaverit atque hic; i., 10, 34., In silvam non ligna feras insanius ac si, &c.

[§ 341.] 3. The following express a concession with the general signification "although" (conjunctiones conces

sivae); etsi, etiamsi, tametsi (or tamenetsi), quamquam, quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, licet, together, with ut in the sense of 66 even if" or "although," and quum, when it signifies "although," which is not unfrequently the case. Note.-Those particles which signify "yet," especially tamen, form the correlatives of the concessive conjunctions; e. g., ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas. Tametsi is a combination of the two correlatives; and in its application we not unfrequently meet with a repetition of the same particle; e. g., Cic., tametsi vicisse debeo, tamen de meo jure decedam; tametsi enim verissimum esse intelligebam, tamen credibile fore non arbitrabar. The adverb quidem also belongs to this class of conjunctions when it is used to connect propositions, and is followed by sed. See § 278.

A difference in the use of these conjunctions might be observed: some might be used to denote real concessions, and others to denote such as are merely conceived or imagined; and this would, at the same time, determine their construction, either the indicative or the subjunctive. But such a difference is clearly perceptible only between quamquam and quamvis. (See $574.) We shall here add only the remark, that quamquam has a peculiar place in absolute sentences, referring to something preceding, but limiting and partly nullifying it; e. g., Cic., in Cat., i., 9, Quamquam quid loquor? Yet why do I speak? p. Muren., 38, in fin., quamquam hujusce rei potestas omnis in vobis sita est, judices; that is, and yet, judges, why should say more? for surely you have the decision entirely in your own hands.

[§ 342.] 4. The following express a condition, the fundamental signification being "if" (conjunctiones condicionales); si, sin, nisi or ni, simodo, dummodo, if only, if but (for which dum and modo are also used alone), dummodo ne, or simply modo ne or dumne.

Note. In order to indicate the connexion with a preceding proposition, the relative pronoun quod (which, however, loses its signification as a pro noun) is frequently put before si, and sometimes, also, before nisi and etsi, so that quodsi may be regarded as one word. Comp. § 806.

Sin signifies "if however," and therefore stands for si autem or si vero; not unfrequently, however, autem is added, and sometimes vero (sin vero in Columella, vii., 3, and Justin).

[ 343.] Ni and nisi have the same meaning, except that ni is especially applied in judicial sponsiones; e. g., centum dare spondeo, ni dixisti, &c. Instead of nisi, we sometimes find the form nisi si. Both particles limit a statement by introducing an exception, and thus differ from si non, which introduces a negative case, for si alone has the character of a conjunction, and non, the negative particle, belongs to the verb or some other word of the proposition. It is often immaterial whether nisi or sinon is used; e. g., Nep. Con., 2, fuit apertum, si Conon non fuisset, Agesilaum Asiam Tauro tenus regi fuisse erepturum; and the same author, Ages., 6, says, talem se imperatorem praebuit, ut omnibus apparuerit nisi ille fuisset, Spartam futuram non fuisse. And thus Cicero, Cat., Maj., 6, might have said, memoria minuitur, si eam non exerceas, instead of nisi eam exerceas; and nisi, on the other hand, might have been used instead of si non, in Cic., in Verr., iii., 18, glebam commosset in agro decumano Siciliae nemo, si Metellus hanc epistolam non misis set. But the difference is nevertheless essential; e. g., if I say impune erit, si pecuniam promissam non dederitis, I mean to express that, in this case, the ordinary punishment will not be inflicted; but if I say, impune erit, nisi pecuniam dederitis, the meaning is, "it shall remain unpunished, except in the case of your having paid the money;" which implies, "but you shall be punished if you have paid the money." Si non, therefore, can be used only when one of the sentences is not complete; as in Horace, Quo mihi

fortunam, si non conceditur uti? What is the good of having property, if 1 am not allowed to make use of it? If we express the former sentence by nullius pretii fortunae sunt, we may continue in the form of an exception, nisi concedatur iis uti, or in the form of a negative case, si non concedatur uti. Si non is farther used only when single words are opposed to one another, as is particularly frequent in such expressions as dolorem, si non potero frangere, occultabo; desiderium amicorum, si non aequo animo, at forti feras; cum spe, si non optima, at aliqua tamen vivere. In this case si minus may be used instead of si non; e. g., Tu si minus ad nos, nos accurremus ad te. If after an affirmative proposition its negative opposite is added without a verb, our "but if not" is commonly expressed (in prose) by si (or sin) minus, sin aliter; e. g., Cic., in Cat., i., 5, educ tecum etiam omnes tuos; si minus, quam plurimos; de Orat., ii., 75, omnis cura mea solet in hoc versari semper, si possim, ut boni aliquid efficiam; sin id minus, ut certe nequid mali; but rarely by si non, which occurs in Cicero only once (ad Fam., vii., 3, in fin.).

[§ 344.] 5. The following express a conclusion or inference with the general signification of "therefore ;" consequently (conjunctiones conclusivae); ergo, igitur, itaque, eo, ideo, iccirco, proinde, propterca, and the relative conjunctions, signifying "wherefore;" quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde.

Note:-Ergo and igitur denote a logical inference, like "therefore." Itaque expresses the relation of cause in facts; it properly signifies "and thus," in which sense it not unfrequently occurs; e. g., itáque fecit. Respecting its accent, see § 32. Ideo, iccirco, and propterea express the agreement between intention and action, and may be rendered by " on this account." Eo is more frequently an adverb of place, "thither;" but it is found in several passages of Cicero in the sense of "on this account," or "for this purpose;" e. g., in Verr., i. 14, ut hoc pacto rationem referre liceret, eo Sullanus repente factus est; Liv., ii., 48, muris se tenebant, eo nulla pugna memorabilis fuit. Proinde, in the sense of "consequently," is not to be confounded with perinde; both words, however, are used in the sense of "like," so that we cannot venture to adopt the one to the exclusion of the other. (See 282.) But as we are speaking here of conclusive conjunctions, we have to consider only proinde, which implies an exhortation; e. g., Cicero, Proinde, si sapis, vide quid tibi faciendum sit; and so, also, in other writers; as, proinde fac magno animo sis, "consequently, be of good courage!" Unde is properly an adverb, "whence," but is used also as a conjunction in a similar sense, alluding to a starting point. Hinc and inde cannot properly be considered as conjunctions, as they retain their real signification of "hence." But adeo may be classed among the conjunctions, since the authors of the silver age use it as denoting a general inference from what precedes, like our "so that," or simply "so;" e. g., Quintil., i., 12, 7, Adeo facilius est multa facere quam diu.

[§ 345.] 6. The following express a cause, or reason, with the demonstrative meaning of "for," and the relative of "because" (conjunctiones causales): nam, namque, enim, etenim, quia, quod, quoniam, quippe, quum, quando, quandoquidem, siquidem. The adverbs nimirum, nempe, scilicet, and videlicet are likewise used to connect propositions.

Note.-Between nam and enim there is this practical difference, that nam is used at the beginning of a proposition, and enim after the first or second word of a proposition. The difference in meaning seems to con.

sist in this, that nam introduces a conclusive reason, and enim merely a confirming circumstance, the consideration of which depends upon the inclination of the speaker. Nam, therefore, denotes an objective reason, and enim merely a subjective one. Namque and etenim, in respect of their signification, do not essentially differ from nam and enim, for the copula. tive conjunction, at least as far as we can judge, is as superfluous as in neque enim, respecting which, see ◊ 808. But, at the same time, they indicate a closer connexion with the sentence preceding; and the proper place for etenim, therefore, is in an explanatory parenthesis. Namque, in Cicero and Nepos, occurs only at the beginning of a proposition, and usually (in Nepos almost exclusively) before vowels; but even as early as the time of Livy, we find it after the beginning of a proposition just as frequently as at the beginning itself. We may add the remark, that enim is sometimes put at the beginning by comic writers in the sense of at enim or sed enim. Drakenborch on Livy, xxxiv., 32, § 13, denies that Livy ever used it in this way.

Nam, enim, and etenim are often used in Latin in the sense of our "namely," to introduce an explanation which was announced; e. g., Cic., Partit., 11, Rerum bonarum et malarum tria sunt genera: nam aut in animis, aut in corporibus, aut extra esse possunt. Nimirum, videlicet, and scilicet likewise answer to our "namely," or "viz." Nimirum is originally an adverb signifying "undoubtedly," or "surely;" e. g., Cic., p. Mur., 15, Si diligenter quid Mithridates potuerit-consideraris, omnibus regibus-hunc regem nimirum antepones. As a conjunction it introduces the reason of an assertion, suggesting that it was looked for with some impatience; e. g., Cic., in Verr., ii., 63, is est nimirum soter, qui salutem dedit. Videlicet and scilicet introduce an explanation, and generally in such a manner that videlicet indicates the true, and scilicet a wrong explanation, the latter being introduced only for the purpose of deriving a refutation from it; e. g., Čic., p. Mil., 21, Cur igitur eos manumisit? Metuebat scilicet, ne indicarent, but he was not afraid of it, as is shown afterward. However, the words nam, enim, etenim, nimirum, videlicet are sometimes used in an ironical sense, and scilicet (though rarely in classical prose) sometimes introduces a true reason without any irony. Nempe signifies "namely" only when another person's concession is taken for granted and emphatically dwelt upon; it may then be rendered by "surely." Comp. above, § 278.

[9 346.] Quia and quod differ from quoniam (properly quum jam) in this. the former indicate a definite and conclusive reason, and the latter a motive: the same difference is observed in the French parceque and puisque. Ideo, iccirco, propterea quod, and quia are used without any essential difference, except that quia introduces a more strict and logical reason, whereas quoniam introduces circumstances which are of importance, and properly signifies "now as." Quando, quandoquidem, and siquidem approach nearer to quoniam than to quia, inasmuch as they introduce only subjective reasons. Quandoquidem denotes a reason implied in a circumstance previously mentioned, and siquidem a reason implied in a concession which has been made. Siquidem is composed of si and quidem, but must be regarded as one word, as it has lost its original meaning, and as si has be come short. Cic., p. Mur., 11, Summa etiam utilitas est in iis, qui militari laude antecellunt, siquidem eorum consilio et periculo quum re publica tum etiam nostris rebus perfrui possumus; Tusc, i., 1, antiquissimum e doctis genus est poetarum, siquidem (since it is admitted, for no doubt is to be expressed here) Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam. Sometimes, however, it is still used in the sense of "if indeed;" e. g., Cic., de Fin., ii., 34. Nos vero, si quidem in voluptate sunt omnia (if, indeed, all happiness consists in enjoyment), longe multumque superamur a bestiis; in Cat., ii., 4, o fortu natam remp., si quidem hanc sentinam ejecerit. In these cases si and quidem should be written as two separate words.

Quippe, when combined with the relative pronoun or quum, is used to introduce a subjective reason When it occurs in an elliptical way, with

out a verb, it is equivalent to "forsooth," or "indeed;" e. g., Cic., de Fin., i., 6, sol Democrito magnus videtur, quippe homini erudito; sometimes it is followed by a sentence with enim, as in Cic., de Fin., iv., 3, a te quidem apte et rotunde (dicta sunt); quippe; habes enim a rhetoribus. And in this way quippe gradually acquires the signification of nam.

[§ 347.] 7. The following express a purpose or object, with the signification of "in order that," or, "in order that not" (conjunctiones finales); ut or uti, quo, ne or ut ne, neve or neu, quin, quominus.

Note.-Ut, as a conjunction, indicates both a result and a purpose, 66 SO that," and "in order that;" when a negative is added to it, in the former sense, it becomes ut non; in the latter ne or ut ne. Ut non is very rarely used for ne; e. g., Cic., in Verr., iv., 20, ut non conferam vitam neque existimationem tuam cum illius-hoc ipsum conferam, quo tu te superiorem fingis; p. Leg., Manil., 15, Itaque ut plura non dicam neque aliorum exemplis confirmem, &c., instead of ne plura dicam, neve confirmem. For neve, which is formed from vel ne, is "or in order that not," and frequently, also, "and in order that not." See § 535. Ut ne is a pleonasm, not differing perceptibly from ne, except that it chiefly occurs in solemn discourse, and hence especially in laws. The two particles occur together as well as separately, e. g., operam dant, ut judicia ne fiant; and still more separated in Cic., de Nat. Deor., i., 17, Sed ut hic, qui intervenit, me intuens, ne ignoret quae res agatur; de natura agebamus deorum; Div. in Q. Caec., 4, qui praesentes vos orant, ut in actore causae suae deligendo vestrum judicium ab suo judicio ne discrepet. It must, however, be observed that ut ne is very frequently used by Cicero, but rarely by other and later writers; in Livy it occurs only in two passages, and in Valerius Maximus and Tacitus never. See Drakenborch on Liv., x., 27. The pleonasm quo ne, for ne, occurs in a single passage of Horace, Serm., ii., 1, 37.

[§ 348.] 8. The following express an opposition, with the signification of "but" (conjunctiones adversativae); sed, autem, verum, vero, at (poetical ast), at enim, atqui, tamen, attămen, sedtămen, veruntămen, at vero (enimvēro), verumenim, vēro, ceterum.

Note. Sed denotes a direct opposition; autem marks a transition in a narrative or argument, and denotes at once a connexion and an opposition, whereas sed interrupts the narrative or argument. The adverb porro, farther, is likewise used to express such a progression and transition, but does not denote opposition, except in later authors, such as Quintilian. See Spalding on Quintilian, ii., 3, 5. Verum and vero stand in a similar relation to each other. Verum, with its primary meaning "in truth," denotes an opposition, which at the same time contains an explanation, and thus brings a thing nearer its decision, as our "but rather."" Non ego, sed tu, is a strong, but simple opposition; but non ego, verum tu, contains an assurance and explanation. Cic., in Verr., iv., 10, says that the inhabitants of Messana had formerly acted as enemies to every kind of injustice, but that they favoured Verres; and he then continues: Verum haec civitas isti praedoni ac piratae Siciliae Phaselis (receptaculum furtorum) fuit, i. e., but I will explain the matter to you, for the fact is, that this town was the repository of his plunder, and shared in it. Vero bears to verum the same relation as autem to sed: it connects things which are different, but denotes the point in favour of which the decision should be; e. g., Cic., p. Arch., 8, Homerum Colophonii civem esse dicunt suum, Chii suum vindicant, Salaminii repetunt, Smyrnaei vero suum esse confirmant; in Verr., iii., 4, Odistis hominum novorum industriam, despicitis eorum frugalitatem, pudorem contemnitis, ingeni