Socrates totius mundi se incolam et civem arbitrabatur, Cic., Tusc., v., 37.

Bene de me meritis gratum me praebeo, Cic., p. Planc., 38. Scytharum gens antiquissima semper habita est.

Note 1.-Hence we say, facio te certiorem, I inform thee, with the genitive; e. g., consilii mei, or with the preposition de: de consilio meo; and in the passive voice, certior factus sum. With other adjectives reddere is preferable to facere; e. g., reddere aliquem placidum et mollem, meliorem, iratum, &c.; homines caecos reddit cupiditas; loca tuta ab hostibus reddebat. In the passive we rarely find reddi for fieri.

Utor, in a similar sense, is used with a double ablative: utor aliquo magistro, I have a person for my teacher; utor aliquo aequo, benigno, I find a person just, kind towards myself. Terent., Heaut., ii., 1, 5, Mihi si unquam filius erit, nae ille facili me utetur patre, he shall have in me an indulgent father.

Note 2.-With regard to the participle passive, the rule respecting the agreement of the predicate with the cases of the subject rarely applies to any other cases than the nominative and accusative, at least in ordinary language. There are, however, a few instances of the ablative in the construction of the ablative absolute; Nep., Hann., 3, Hasdrubale impera tore suffecto; Liv., iv., 46, magistro equitum creato filio suo profectus est ad bellum; ibid., xlv., 21, Consulibus certioribus factis; Flor., iii., 21, ex senatusconsulto adversariis hostibus judicatis. There are no instances of other oblique cases. It is not, however, improbable that a Roman might have said, Dareus Scytharum genti, quamquam justissimae habitae, bellum intulit.

Note 3.-The verbs putare, ducere, and habere may have the preposition pro instead of the accusative of the predicate, but not quite in the same sense, pro expressing rather an approximation; e. g., habere pro hoste, to deem a person equal to an enemy; aliquid pro non dicto habere, to consider a thing as though it had not been said; aliquid pro certo putare, to regard a thing as though it were certain; pro nihilo, as though it were nothing. We may here notice, also, the phrases aliquem in numero; e. g., imperatorum, sapientium, and aliquem in loco parentis ducere or habere.

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[§ 395.] 8. The accusative is used with verbs and adjectives to express the extent of time and space, in answer to the questions, how far? how long? how broad? how deep? how thick? e. g., nunquam pedem a me discessit, he never moved one step from me; a recta conscientia non transversum unguem (or digitum) oportet discedere, not one finger's breadth; fossa duos pedes lata or longa; cogitationem sobrii hominis punctum temporis suscipe, take, for one moment, the thought of a rational man; so, also, Mithridates annum jam tertium et vicesimum regnat; tres annos mecum habitavit, or per tres annos, which, however, implies that the period was a long one. Campus Marathon ab Athenis circiter milia passuum decem abest, Nep., Milt., 4.

Quaedam bestiolae unum tantum diem vivunt, Cic. Decem quondam annos urbs oppugnata est ob unam muli. erem ab universa Graecia, Liv., v., 4.

Lacrimans in carcere mater noctes diesque assidebat, Cic., in Verr., v., 43.

[ 396.] Note 1.-The ablative is rarely used by Cicero to express the duration of time;* e. g., de Off., iii., 2, Scriptum est a Posidonio triginta annis vixisse Panaetium, posteaquam libros de officiis edidisset; but it is more frequent in the authors of the silver age; Tac., Ann., i., 53, quattuordecim annis exilium toleravit; Suet., Calig., 59, vixit annis undetriginta. The ablative of distance must, in general, be regarded as an exception, although it occurs not only in later writers, but in Caesar and Livy, abest, distat quinque milibus passuum, or spatio aliquot milium; Tac., Ann., xii., 17, Exercitus Romanus tridui itinere abfuit ab amne Tanai; but Cicero and others, in accordance with the rule, say iter quinque, decem dierum, or biduum, triduum, or bidui, tridui (scil., spatium) abest ab aliquo loco. If, however, not the distance is to be expressed, but only a place to be designated by the circumstance of its distance from another, the ablative should be used, though the accusative sometimes occurs; e. g., Liv., xxvii., 41, mille fere et quingentos passus castra ab hoste locat; xxv., 13, tria passuum milia ab ipsa urbe loco edito castra posuit, and in other passages. Spatio and intervello are the only words in which the ablative is used exclusively; e. g., Liv., xxv., 9, quindecim ferme milium spatio castra ab Tarento posuit, but the ablative is found, also, in many other cases, agreeably to the rule; e. g., Caes., Bell. Gall., i, 48, Eodem die castra promovit et milibus passuum sex a Caesaris castris sub monte consedit. When the place from which the distance is calcu lated is not mentioned, but understood from what precedes, ab is placed at the beginning, as if the ablative of the distance depended on it; e. g., Caes., Bell. Gall., ii., 7, a milibus passuum duobus castra posuerunt, i. e., at a distance of 2000 paces from the spot, or 2000 paces off, duo inde milia (for more instances from Caesar, see Schneider on Caes., I. c.); Liv., xxiv., 46, a quingentis fere passibus castra posuit; Flor., ii., 6, 56, non jam a tertio lapide (i. e., at a distance of three miles), sed ipsas Carthaginis portas obsidi one quatiebat. (Compare Matthiae, Greek Grammar, § 573, p. 994, 5th ed.) [§ 397.] Note 2.— Old, in reference to the years which a person has lived, is expressed in Latin by natus, with an accusative of the time; e. g., Decessit Alexander mensem unum, annos tres et triginta natus (Justin, xii., 16). Alexander, therefore, died quarto et trigesimo anno, or aetatis_anno. A person's age, however, may be expressed without natus, by the genitive, if his name is closely joined to the words denoting the time (see § 426); e. g., Alexander_annorum trium et triginta decessit, i. e., as a man of thirtythree years. The expressions "older" or "younger than thirty-three years," are accordingly rendered in Latin by plus or minus (see § 485) tres et triginta annos natus; but, also, by major or minor, either without quam; as, major (minor) annos tres et triginta natus, and major (minor) annorum trium et triginta; or with quam: major (minor) quam annos tres et triginta natus, and major (minor) quam annorum trium et triginta. Natu may be joined to annorum, as anno is to aetatis in the case of ordinal numerals. Lastly, the ablative is made to depend upon the comparative; major (minor) tribus et triginta annis; and in the Roman laws we frequently find the expression minor viginti quinque annis.

[§ 398.] 9. The names of towns, and not unfrequently of small islands, are put in the accusative with verbs implying motion, without the preposition in or ad, which are required with the names of countries; e. g., Juvenes Romani Athenas studiorum causa proficisci solebant. We

* [The strict distinction appears to be this: with the ablative we ask, in what time; but with the accusative, throughout what time. Compare Billroth, L. G., § 208.]-Am. Ed.

may here mention at once all the rules relating to the construction of the names of towns. If they denote the place whence, they are in the ablative; if the place where? singular nouns of the first and second declensions are put in the genitive, all plurals and nouns of the third declension in the ablative. When we have to express "through a town," the preposition per is required.

Demaratus quidam, Tarquinii regis pater, tyrannum Cypselum quod ferre non poterat, Tarquinios Corintho fugit, et ibi suas fortunas constituit, Cic., Tusc., v., 37. Dionysius tyrannus Syracusis expulsus Corinthi pueros docebat, Cic., Tusc., iii., 12.

Romae Consules, Athenis Archontes, Carthaginet Suffetes, sive judices, quotannis creabantur, Nep., Hann.

Note 1.-The use of names of countries without a preposition, like the names of towns, and of names of towns with the prepositions in, ab, ex, is an irregularity which should not be imitated. Of these prepositions ab is found most frequently, especially in Livy, though sometimes, also, in Cicero: ab Epidauro Piraeeum advectus, ab Epheso in Syriam profectus, a Brundisio nulla adhuc fama venerat; and cases may occur in which the preposition is absolutely necessary; as in Cic., in Verr., iv., 33, Segesta est oppidum in Sicilia, quod ab Aenea, fugiente a Troja, conditum esse demonstrant. Ad is joined with names of towns when only the direction towards a place is to be expressed, and not the place itself; e. g., in Cicero, iter dirigere ad Mutinam; tres viae sunt ad Mutinam, farther, when the vicinity of a place is to be denoted (§ 296); in this sense, the elder Cato says, in Cic., Cat.—aj., 5, adolescentulus miles profectus sum ad Capuam, quintoque anno

* This rule, varying as it does with the number and declension of a name of a town, is obviously quite arbitrary, and not traceable to any principle. The first (at least in England) proper explanation of this apparent peculiarity of the Latin language is given by a writer in the Journal of Education (vol. i., p. 107), from which we extract the following passage: "We are usually directed to translate at Rome by the genitive, at Athens by the ablative, &c., giving different rules according as the number or the gender differs, while, in fact, they are all datives. With Romae, Athenis, there is no difficulty. As to Beneventi, domi, &c., an earlier form of the dative of the second declension was oi (oikot), whence arose the double form nullo and nullī. In the plural the two languages exhibit the same analogy; douλo, doúλoç, in Greek, and in Latin pueri, pueris. In the third declension a common occurrence has taken place." This explanation is confirmed by the fact that in most cases we find Carthagini, Anzuri, Tiburi, and also Lacedæmoni, when the place where? is to be expressed. See above, § 63, in fin.-TRANSL.

+ The writer above quoted justly remarks: "Our editions often present Carthagine, Lacedæmone, where the MSS. have the correct dative. It is true that authority exists for the other form; but the change of Carthagini into Carthagine is precisely similar to the change of heri into here, pictaï into pictae, and not unlike the absorption of the i in the datives of so many declensions, Greek and Latin: gradui gradu, fidei fide. In the third declension, the preceding consonant saved it from total extinction. The commonest effect of time upon language is to soften away the final letters. Hence miraris, mirare; agier, agi; ipsus, ipse; quis, qui; fuerunt, fuere. homo, homo; ywv, ¿yw; egō, ego," &c.-TRANSL.

post ad Tarentum Quaestor, that is, in castra, ad Capuam, ad Tarentum. So ad is also used to denote the approach of a fleet to a maritime town; e. g., Caes., Bell. Civ., iii., 100, Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium venit.

What has been said above in reference to islands applies not only to those which have towns of the same name, such as Delos, Rhodus, Samos, Corcyra, but to others, also, as in Cicero: Ithacae vivere otiose; in Nepos, Conon plurimum Cypri vixit, Iphicrates in Thracia, Timotheus Lesbi ; Pausaniam cum classe Cyprum atque Hellespontum miserunt; so, also, Chersonesum colonos mittere, Chersonesi habitare; but Cicero, de Divin., i., 25, says, in Cyprum redire. The larger islands; as, Sardinia, Britannia, Creta, Euboea, Sicilia, are subject to the same rules as names of countries; and the few exceptions which occur cannot be taken into account; e. g., Cic, p. Leg. Man., 12, inde Sardiniam cum classe venit; Liv., xxxii., 16, Euboeam trajecerunt; Flor., iii., 10, Britanniam transit; and some others.

Names of countries, also, are not unfrequently used in the accusative without the preposition in when motion is expressed. This is most frequently the case with Aegyptus (once even in Cic., de Nat. Deor., iii., 22), and other Greek names of countries in us; as, Epirus, Peloponnesus, Chersonesus, Bosporus, perhaps owing to their resemblance to names of towns; but also with others; e. g., Caes., Bell. Gall., iii., 7, Illyricum profectus; Bell. Civ., iii., 41, Macedoniam pervenit; Liv., X., 37, Etruriam transducto exercitu; xxx., 24, Africam transiturus. All these expressions, however, are only exceptions, rarely used by the earlier writers, and somewhat more frequently by the later ones. Even names of nations, when used for those of countries, are construed in this way by Tacitus, Ann., xii., 32, ductus inde Cangos exercitus; xii., 15, Ipse praeceps Iberos ad patrium regnum pervadit. The genitive of names of countries in answer to the question where? is much more rare, and is confined to Aegypti in Caesar, Bell. Civ., iii., 106; Chersonesi in Nep., Milt., 1; Florus, i., 18, 11, uses Lucaniae in the same way; in Sallust the combination Romae Numidiaeque is easily accounted for.*

The grammatical explanation of this genitive, however, is connected with difficulties. Formerly grammarians accounted for it by the ellipsis in loco; modern comparative philology has called in the aid of the locative singular in i of the Sanscrit language, which is akin to the Latin. (See Bopp, Vergleich. Grammatik, p. 229.) This would account for the ae in the first declension, the ancient form being ai (see $45), and for the i in some nouns of the third declension; e. g., Tiburi, Carthagini, ruri. (See § 62, foll.) The use of the accusative to denote "motion to," and of the ablative to denote the place where or whence, is perfectly in accordance with the syntactical system of the Latin language; and this accounts for the fact of later writers, especially Justin, frequently putting names of towns of the second declension in the ablative to denote the place where; e. g., Abydo, Corintho, Liv., v., 52, in monte Albano Lavinioque, for et Lavinii.t

[ 399.] Note 2.-With regard to adjectives and nouns of apposition joined with names of towns, the following rules must be observed. When a name of a town is qualified by an adjective, the answer to the question where? is not expressed by the genitive, but by the preposition in with the ablative; e. g., Cic., ad Att., xi., 16, in ipsa Álexandria; Plin., Hist. Nat., xiv., 3, in Narbonensis provinciae Alba Helvia; and, consequently, not Albae Longae, but rather the simple ablative Alba Longa; as in Virgil, Aen., vi., 766. In Cicero, however, we find Teani Apuli (p. Cluent., 9), in the Apulian Teanum. When a name of a town answers to the question where?

According to the remark made above, Aegypti, Chersonesi, Lucaniae, &c., are all datives, answering to the Sanscrit locative, and not genitives. -TRANSL.

+ According to what was said above, these are not exceptions; Abydo, Corintho, being datives, and not ablatives.-TRANSL.

in the ablative, the addition of an adjective produces no change; e. g., Cic., ad Att., xvi., 6, Malo vel cum timore domi esse, quam sine timore Athenis tuis; Liv., i., 18, Numa Pompilius Curibus Sabinis habitabat; ibid., xxviii., 17, Carthagine nova reliquit; and hence the reading in the epitome of the same book should be Carthagini nova, and not novae. In answer to the questions whither? and whence? the accus. and ablat. are used both with and without prepositions; e. g., Ovid, Heroid., ii., 83, Aliquis doctas jam nunc eat, inquit, Athenas; Cic., in Verr., i., 19, quae ipsa Samo sublata sunt; but Propert., iii., 20, magnum iter ad doctas proficisci cogor Athenas; and Martial, xiii., 107, de vitifera venisse Vienna.

When the words urbs, oppidum, locus, &c., follow the names of towns as appositions, they generally take a preposition; e. g., Demaratus Corinthius se contulit Tarquinios, in urbem Etruriae florentissimam; Cic., in Verr., v., 51, Cleomenes dicit, sese in terram esse egressum, ut Pachyno, e terrestri praesidio, milites colligeret. In answer to the question where? however, the simple ablative may be used, but never the genitive; e. g., Cic., p. Arch., 3, Archias Antiochiae natus est, celebri quondam urbe et copiosa; p. Rab. Post., 10, Deliciarum causa et voluptatis cives Romanos Neapoli, in celeberrimo oppido, cum mitella saepe vidimus. When these words, with their prepositions, precede the names of towns, the latter are invariably put in the same case; e. g., ad urbem Ancyram, ex urbe Roma, ex oppido Thermis, in oppido Athenis; Nep., Cim., 3, in oppido Citio; Tac., Ann., xi., 21, in oppido Adrumeto. Exceptions are rare; Vitruv., Praef., lib. x., nobili Graecorum et ampla civitate Ephesi; and in Cic., ad Att., v., 18, Cassius in oppido Antiochiae cum omni exercitu est, where Antiochiae depends upon oppido, just as we say "in the town of Antioch."

[$ 400.] Note 3.-The words domus and rus are treated like the names of towns, consequently domum (also domos in the plur.) and rus, home, into the country; domo and rure, from home, from the country; domi, rur (more frequent than rure), at home, in the country. But although the rule requires, e. g., domo abesse, to be absent from home, Livy uses esse ab domo; and besides domi se tenere, to keep at home, we also find domo se tenere. (See the comment. on Nep., Epam., 10.) Domi also takes the genitives meae, tuae, nostrae, vestrae, and alienae; but if any other adjective is joined with it, a preposition must be used; e. g., in illa domo, in domo publica, in privata domo. When the name of the possessor is added in the genitive, both forms, domi and in domo, are used; e. g., domi or in domo Caesaris or ipsius. In the case of domum and domo, the rule is, on the whole, the same; we say, e. g., domum meam venit, nihil domum suam intulit, domos suas invitant, domo sua egredi; but in domum meretriciam induci; in domum veterem remigrare e nova; Livy, in domum Maelii tela inferuntur; Cicero, e domo Caesaris multa ad te delata sunt; Cicero, however, very commonly says, domum alicujus venire, convenire, domos omnium concursare. Humus, bellum, and militia are, to some extent, construed in a similar way, their genitivest being used to denote the place where? humi, on the ground (but not humum, (I throw) upon the ground, and rarely humo, from the ground, prepositions being required to express these relations; hence humo is often used as an ablative of place for humi); belli and militiae, always in combination with, or in opposition to, domi: belli domique, or domi bellique, domi militiaeque, at home and in the camp; nec ducem belli, nec principem domi desideramus; nihil domi, nihil militiae gestum. But we also find in bello, in war. Viciniae for in vicinia, occurs in Terence in such connexions, as, hic, huc, viciniae, where, however, the genitive might be regarded as dependant upon the adverb (see § 434), but Plautus (Bacch., ii., 2, 27) uses it without the adverb; proximae viciniae habitat. Foras (out through the door) and foris (out at the door) have become adverbs, but the one is properly an accusat., and the other an ablat.