lam in re publica turbantur, ne cujusquam animum meae litterae interceptae offendant, Cic., ad Quint. Frat., iii., 9. Note. The pleonastic use of the accusative of demonstrative pronouns with the verba sentiendi et declarandi, and with the verbs of effecting, asking, and others, which require ut for the purpose of directing attention to what follows, must be carefully distinguished from this necessary use of those pronouns. The pleonastic use of this pronoun, of which we shall speak in 748, has no influence whatever upon the construction. We remarked above that the nominat. of the demonstrative pronoun is likewise used pleonastically, and serves, in conjunction with quod following, to ex press more distinctly that the proposition contains a real fact; but we are here speaking of the oblique cases, especially the ablative, both with and without a preposition.

CHAPTER LXXXI.

USE OF THE PARTICIPLES.

[§ 631.] 1. THE participle expresses the action or condition of the verb in the form of an adjective, governing the case of the verb, and at the same time marking the complete or incomplete state of the action or condition. In Latin, as in English, this form of the verb is very defective, for it has in the active one participle to express an action still going on; as, scribens, writing; and in the passive, one to express the completed state of suffering; as, scriptus, written; consequently there is no participle of a completed action (for which we say having written), nor of a state of suffering still going on. The Greek lan

guage has participles for all these cases. The Latin deponent is the only kind of verb which has the participles complete, its passive form having an active meaning: imitans, imitating, and imitatus, one who has imitated.

To these, however, we must add two participles, one in the active and the other in the passive, which express the action or suffering as not yet begun, that is, as something which is to take place in future, whence they are called participles of the future. The participle future active properly expresses the intention or obligation to perform an action; as, scripturus, one who intends or has to write, but has also the signification of simple futurity, 66 one who is about to write." The participle future passive expresses in the nominative the necessity that something should be done or suffered; as, epistola scribenda, a letter which must be written, and not one that will be written. In the other cases it serves to supply the very

sensible want of a participle present passive, expressing a state of suffering going on. But of this hereafter, § 652, following.

Note 1.-The participle contains, in itself, no specification of time. When we say written, we suppose, indeed, the act of writing to have taken place at some period of the past time; but the state expressed in written may exist in the present as well as in the past or future time; for we may say, a thing is now written, was written three years ago, and will be written many years hence: the participle written expressing in all these cases only the completion of a passive state.

[ 632.] Note 2.-The want of the participle of a completed action in the active is often felt very sensibly, for neither circumlocution nor the change into the passive form (e. g., victoriā partā, after he had gained the victory) always conveys exactly what is meant. But the perfect participles of deponents are a very convenient means of supplying this want, as their number is not small, and it is always easy to find some deponent which is synonymous with an active; in the case just mentioned we may say victoriam adeptus, assecutus, or consecutus.

On the other hand, the Latin writers use many perfect participles of deponents in a passive sense, along with the proper active one; but the following only are attested by the authority of correct writers: adeptus, comitatus, commentatus, complexus, confessus, demensus and emensus, effatus, ementitus, emeritus, expertus (especially inexpertus), execratus, interpretatus, meditatus, metatus, moderatus, opinatus, pactus, partitus, perfunctus, periclitatus, populatus, depopulatus, stipulatus, testatus, and its compounds contestatus and detestatus. A pretty complete list of them is given in Joh. Conr. Schwarz, Grammat. Lat., p. 382, foll. The perfect tenses of these deponents thus sometimes acquire a passive signification, and some participles are also used in a passive sense in the construction of the ablative absolute; parti tus is frequently used so by Caesar, partitis copiis, Bell. Gall., vi., 6; partito exercitu, ibid., vi., 33, and Liv., xxviii., 19; partita classe, Liv., xxvii., 8; and depopulato agro, in Liv., ix., 36; adepta libertate, in Sallust, Cat., 7. But such things must be looked upon as exceptions, though there may be less objection to such an expression as adepta libertate uti nescis.

[633.] There are, however, some active verbs which have a participle perfect with a passive form. (See § 148.) Such participles are, juratus, pransus, coenatus (which, however, has also a passive meaning), potus ; ausus, gavisus, solitus, fisus, confisus; farther, exosus, perosus, and pertaesus, which belong to odisse and the impersonal taedet. The participles assuetus and desuetus have a reflective meaning besides the passive one, and signify one who has accustomed or disaccustomed himself.

[ 634.] Note 3.-The periphrasis of habere with a participle perfect passive, which in English forms the perfect passive, occurs also in Latin, but almost exclusively in those expressions which denote knowing and determining. Hence we say, cognitum, perspectum, perceptum, comprehensum, exploratum, statutum, constitutum, deliberatum, persuasum mihi habeo, equivalent 10 cognovi, perspexi, percepi, &c.; e. g., hoc cognitum habeo comprehensumque animo; qui homines amicitiam nec usu nec ratione habent cognitam; omnes habeo cognitos sensus adolescentis. Persuasum mihi habeo and persuasissimum habeo can only be used in the neuter gender, and with an accusative with the infinitive, in the sense of mihi persuasi or persuasum mihi est. In other cases, where this periphrasis occurs, it differs in meaning from the ordinary perfect active; inchoatum and institutum habeo opus express more than inchoavi, institui, and absolutum habeo is more than absolvi. Quint. Cic., in Cic., ad Fam., iii., in fin., quod me hortaris ut absolvam: habeo absolutum suave epos ad Caesarem; i. e., I have it ready; in Verr., iii., 14, ut decumas ad aquas deportatas haberent. It has a strengthening power in Cic., in Rull., ii., 6 non enim naturā bellum nescio quod habet susceptum consulatus cum tribuna

N N

tu; in Verr., v., in fin., Verres deorum templis et religionibus bellum semper habuit indictum, ibid., ii., 32, fidem et religionem tuam jam alteri addictam pecunia accepta habuisti; ad Att., xvi., 16, quod si feceris, me maximo beneficio devinctum habebis, which is stronger than devinxeris; but ad Att., vi., 2, Senatum inclusum in curia habuerunt, must be understood in its literal sense: they kept the senate imprisoned; i. e., inclusum tenuerunt, an expression which frequently occurs.

[§ 635.] 2. Participles are employed in Latin more frequently than in English, not only to express the verb in explanatory clauses, connected, by means of a relative pronoun, with a noun of the leading sentence, but clauses which are introduced by means of particles of time (e. g., as, when, although, since), may be expressed by participles, provided their subject occurs in the leading sen

tence.

Est enim lex nihil aliud, nisi recta et a numine deorum tracta ratio, imperans honesta, prohibens contraria, Cic., Philip., xi., 12.

Curio, ad focum sedenti, magnum auri pondus Samnites quum attulissent, repudiati ab eo sunt, Cic., Cat. Maj. Dionysius tyrannus, Syracusis expulsus, Corinthi pueros docebat, Cic., Tusc., iii., 12.

Dionysius, cultros metuens tonsorios, candenti carbone sibi adurebat capillum, Cic., de Off., ii., 7.

Risus interdum ita repente erumpit, ut eum cupientes tenere nequeamus, Cic., de Orat., ii., 58.

Note 1.-It must be observed, as one of the most frequent occurrences, that clauses denoting time are connected, by means of a participle, with a noun of the leading proposition; e. g., regem forte inambulantem homo adiit; i. e., while he was taking a walk; domum reversus litteras tuas ineni, when I returned home. One of two verbs connected in English by "and" may be expressed by the present participle, in Latin, when the actions expressed by them are regarded as simultaneous; e. g., he came to me and cried out (or crying out), venit ad me clamitans. The perfect participle, both of passive and deponent verbs, however, must be used whenever one of the actions precedes the other, although in English they are sometimes connected by "and," and described as simultaneous; e. g., Caesar hostes aggressus fugavit, Caesar attacked the enemy and defeated them; Caesar hostes in fugam conjectos persecutus est, Caesar put the enemy to flight and pursued them. Examples of this kind occur in great num bers. Sentences which we connect by "although" must be more especial ly attended to, as the Latin language here differs more widely from ours; e. g., in the last passage above quoted (Cic., de Orat., ii., 58), and in oth er passages of Cicero; as, Misericordia occurrere solet supplicibus et calamitosis, nullius oratione evocata. Such a participle is often followed by tamen : e. g., Cicero, Scripta tua jam diu expectans non audeo tamen flagitare; quis hoc non intelligit, istum absolutum tamen e manibus populi Romani eripi nulle modo posse? Later writers join the particles quamquam, quamvis, etiam, and vel, with the participle itself; e. g., Sueton., Caesarem milites quamvis recusantem ultro in Africam sunt secuti. Conditional clauses, also, implyi.g an unreal hypothesis, which should be expressed by the subjunctive, are

not unfrequently put in the participle. But, on the other hand, it must be observed, that a general protasis describing an object only as conceived to be endowed with certain qualities; e. g., he who does or thinks this, are generally not expressed by a participle, but as in English, by is qui, or, with the omission of is, by qui alone, or by si quis, since a participle cannot appear in the independent character of a substantive any more than an adjective. (See § 363.) It is only in later Latin that participles are used more frequently in this sense; e. g., adstantes, audientes, instead of ii qui adstabant, audiebant. (Comp. $714.)

[ 636.1 Note 2.-A participle is used with the verbs denoting "to represent" and "perceive," especially with those denoting "to see" or "hear," when a thing is described or perceived in a particular state; as in Pliny, Apelles pinxit Alexandrum Magnum fulmen tenentem, In English we frequently join the infinitive with such verbs; e. g., audivi te canentem, I heard you sing: vidi te ambulantem, I saw you take a walk; but audivi te canere, in Latin, either means, "I heard (from somebody) that you sang," or, I heard that you sang a song (e. g., carmen Catulli, Trojae excidium), so that the object of my perception was not the person in the act of singing, but the action of the person. Audivi te quum caneres (see § 749) would refer to a portion of his song.

Timoleon, quum aetate jam provectus esset, lumina oculorum amisit, quam calamitatem ita moderate tulit, ut neque eum querentem quisquam audierit, neque eo minus privatis publicisque rebus interfuerit, Nep., Timol., 4.

[§ 637.] 3. Substantives expressing the action of the verb; e. g., the building, instituting, writing, hearing, are expressed by the participles perfect and future passive, the Latin language not always having substantives of this kind (at least they are not in common use). There is, of course, this difference, that the perfect participle is employed when the action is to be represented as completed, and the future participle when it is conceived as still incomplete. (The participle future passive, however, only in its oblique cases, as the nominative has the signification of necessity, see § 649.) This is done in all the cases of such participles, and even when they are governed by the prepositions ad, ante, ob, post, propter, ab, and ex; e. g., Liv., xxvii., 29, kae litterae recitatae magnum luctum fecerunt, the reading of this letter; Tacit., Ann., i., 8, Occisus Caesar aliis pessimum, aliis pulcherrimum facinus videbatur, the murder of Caesar, &c.; Tarentum captum, the taking of Tarentum; receptus Hannibal, the reception of Hannibal; ob receptum Hannibalem, on account of the reception of Hannibal; Curt., iv., 58, sibi quisque caesi regis expetebat decus, the glory of having killed, or of killing the king (for both expressions are here equivalent). It must, however, be observed that the nominative is not thus used by Cicero, but is peculiar to the silver age of the language.

P. Scipio propter Africam domitam Africanus appellatus est, Eutrop., iv., 4.

Thebae et ante Epaminondam natum et post ejus interitum perpetuo alieno paruerunt imperio, Nep., Epam., 10. (So, also, post Christum natum, ab urbe condita, &c.)

Note 1.--It deserves to be especially noticed, that Livy uses the neuter of the participle perfect passive, without a noun, as a verbal subject of a proposition; e. g., vii., 22, Tentatum domi per dictatorem, ut ambo patricii consules crearentur, rem ad interregnum perduxit; i. e., the attempt, or, properly, the fact of the attempt being made by the dictator; xxviii., 26, Haud procul ab urbe aberant, quum ex obviis auditum, postero die omnem exercitum proficisci, omni metu eos liberavit, the news freed them from all fear. Comp. i., 53, init.; iv., 16; iv., 59; and in many other passages. With this we must compare the use of the neuter of the same participle in the ablative. See § 647.

[§ 638.] Note 2.-The English "without" with a verbal substantive is not expressed in Latin by sine, but a negative particle is used instead ; e. g., Caesar exercitum nunquam per insidiosa itinera duxit, nisi perspeculatus locorum situs, without having examined the localities: especially with the ablative absolute; as, Athenienses non expectato auxilio adversus ingentem Persarum exercitum in proelium egrediuntur, without expecting assistance; natura dedit usuram vitae, tamquam pecuniae, nulla praestituta die, without fixing any time; nulla valetudinis habita ratione celeriter profectus sum, without paying any regard to my health; Virgilii Aeneidem noli legere, nisi lectis Homeri carminibas, without having read the Homeric poems.

[§ 639.] 4. The participle future active is used, especially with verbs of motion (such as go, send, &c.), to express a purpose, which we indicate in English by the particle "to;" the conjunction ut, or a relative pronoun_with the subjunctive, however, is very commonly used in Latin instead of the participle.

Hannibal in Etruriam ducit, eam quoque gentem aut vi aut voluntate adjuncturus, Liv., xxi., 58.

Note. This participle is also used to supply the place of the conjunctions "since," "when," "although” (§ 635); e. g., plura locuturos abire nos jussit; i. e., when or although we intended to say more; Sueton., Tib., 18, Tiberius trajecturus Rhenum commeatum omnem non ante transmisit, quam, &c., when he wanted to cross; Tacit., Germ., 3, Herculem Germani, ituri in proelium canunt, when they intend to go to battle; Phaedr., iii., 2, Alü onerant saxis, quidam contra miseriti picturae quippe, quamvis nemo laederet, misere panem, since the animal was to die after all. (Notice here the addition of quippe and utpote in this sense.) Hence this participle is also used as apodosis to express the inference from an hypothetical proposition; Liv., iii., 30, egreditur castris Romanus, vallum invasurus, ni copia pugnas fieret; Tacit., Ann., i., 36, augebat metum gnarus Romanae seditionis et, si omitteretur ripa, invasurus hostis; and with the repetition of the preceding verb, Plin., Epist., iii., 13, librum misi exigenti tibi; missurus, etsi non exegis ses; iii, 21, dedit mihi quantum maxime potuit, daturus amplius, si potuisset ; i. e., ac dedisset amplius. Comp. Nep., Them., 2, aliter illos nunquam in pa triam recepturi, for aliter here is equivalent to nisi id fecissent. But it must be observed that this concise mode of using the participle future active is foreign to the language of Cicero: it belongs to the silver age, in which. however, the language was still in its progress of development.