to future time, also, may be implied, but this arises from the connexion, and not from the participle itself; e. g., consilium libertatis recuperandae; missus erat ad naves comparandas. For the rest, see the chapter on the ge

rund.

[ 653.] Note.-With the verbs dare and tradere, mittere, concedere, and permittere, accipere, and suscipere, locare and conducere, and others of a similar meaning, the purpose for which anything is given, sent, &c., is expressed passively by the future participle; e. g., rex Harpago Cyrum infantem occidendum tradidit, to be killed; Cicero, Clodius uberrimas provincias verandas diripiendasque consulibus permisit; demus nos philosophiae excolendos; Lentulus attribuit nos trucidandos Cethego, ceteros cives interficiendos Gabinio, urbem inflammandam Cassio, totam Italiam vastandam diripiendamque Catilinae; quattuor columnas locavit dealbandas, ceteras aedificandas; conduxerat columnas faciendas; Horace, haec porcis comedenda relinques. But the same may be expressed actively by means of ad with the gerund; e. g., Scaevola nemini se ad docendum dabat; Caesar oppidum ad diripiendum militibus concessit; auctores nobis propositi sunt ad imitandum. (The poets use the infinitive active; as, Horat., Carm., i., 26, Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Caspium portare ventis; in prose it is a rare exception, and occurs only in the phrase bibere dare, in Cic., Tusc., i., 26; or, ministrare, in Terent., Andr., iii., 2, 4.) The construction of curare with the same participle also deserves to be noticed; e. g., Conon muros dirutos a Lysandro reficiendos curavit, he ordered them to be restored, or had them restored; Fabricius perfugam reducendum curavit ad Pyrrhum, he ordered him to be taken back; funus ei satis amplum faciendum curavi, I had him honourably buried. In the silver age we also find the expression habeo faciendum, I have to do, or must do; e. g., Plin., Hist. Nat., Praef., huic epistolae subjunxi, quid singulis contineatur libris, ne perlegendos eos haberes; Tacit., Ann., xiv., 44, si nunc primum statuendum haberemus. Habeo facere, I can do, occurs in Cicero, See ◊ 562.

[§ 654.] 11. This participle should properly be formed only from active transitive verbs, but it is formed also from deponents which have a transitive meaning; e. g., in imitando hoc scriptore, i. e., if this writer is imitated. Of intransitive verbs, however, only the neuter of this participle is used with est, erat, &c.; e. g., quiescendum est, dormiendum, eundum est.

CHAPTER LXXXII.

USE OF THE GERUND.

[§ 655.] 1. THE gerund is in form nothing else than the four oblique cases of the neuter of the participle future passive. It governs the case of its verb, and with regard to its signification it supplies the place of a declinable infinitive present active, and is a verbal substantive, just as in English the present participle is used as a verbal substantive. Thus we find the dative in Quintilian, xi., 2, 35,

illud ediscendo scribendoque commune est, this is common to learning by heart and writing; the ablative in Cicero, Tusc., iii., 7, discrepat a timendo confidere; Lael., 27, amicitia dicta est ab amando. Examples of the genitive are given above, § 425. The accusative presents a difference from the infinitive, for the latter, which is also used as an accusative (§ 597), has the power of an abstract noun, whereas the gerund expresses a real action; e. g., Senec., de Benef., v., 10, multum interest inter dare et accipere; but, on the other hand, Cic., de Fin., iii., 20, Non solum ad discendum propensi sumus, sed etiam ad docendum.

[§ 656.] 2. The relation of the gerund to the real participle future passive is this: as the gerund has an active meaning, e. g., consilium scribendi, the design of writing or to write, it may have an accusative as its object; as, consilium scribendi epistolam, and this construction may, without any change of meaning, be changed into the passive: consilium scribendae epistolae, the design of a letter to be written, or, that a letter should be written. The accusative is thus always changed into the case in which the gerund stood. This change into the passive may take place wherever no ambiguity is likely to arise; i. e., wherever the gender is distinguishable; hence it generally does not take place when the accusative, dependent upon the gerund, is the neuter of a pronoun or adjective; e. g., studium illud efficiendi, cupido plura cognoscendi, not illius efficiendi, or plurium cognoscendorum, because it would be impossible to see whether the genitives illius and plurium are masculine or neuter. Hence it is better to say lex appellata est a suum cuique tribuendo, than a suo cuique tribuendo. But, independently of this reason, the change of the active construction into the passive, with the participle future (which modern grammarians call gerundivum, to distinguish it from the gerund), is less frequent in some writers, Livy and Curtius for example, than in others.

[ 657.] Note 1.-The passive construction is also found with utor, fruor, fungor, and potior, because these verbs were originally joined with an accusative, and sometimes are still so used in our writers. (See ◊ 465.) Hence we read in Cicero, de Fin., i., 3, sapientia non paranda nobis solum, sed etiam fruenda est; de Off., ii., 12, justitiae fruendae causà videntur olim bene morati reges constituti; de Off., i., 8, expetuntur autem divitiae quum ad usus vitae necessarios, tum ad perfruendas voluptates; Tusc., iii., 7, oculus probe affectus ad suum munus fungendum; in Verr., ii., 18, omnia bona ei utenda ac possidenda tradiderat ; Caes., Bell. Gall., iii., 6, hostes in spem potiundorum castrorum venerant; and thus we very frequently find in Livy and Curtius, spes potiundae urbis, petrae. As an exception, the same occurs

with the verb mederi, which, in the early language, was likewise some. times joined with the accusative, whence we find in Livy, viii., 36, and Vell. Pat., ii., 25, medendis corporibus. Invidendus, poenitendus, and pudendus have become adjectives.

[ 658.] Note 2.-There are a few passages in good authors, in which the gerund is used in a passive sense; Cic., in Verr., i., 18, censendi causa haec frequentia convenit, for the purpose of undergoing the census; p. Flacc., 32, si aliena censendo Decianus sua facere posset; Vell. Pat., ii., 15, ad censendum ex provinciis in Italiam revocare; Cic., ad Fam., vii., 3, ades ad imperandum; i. e., ut imperetur tibi; Tusc., i., 23, ceteris, quae moventur, hic fons, hoc principium est movendi ; Nep., Att., 9, spes restituendi, the hope of being restored. See Bremi's note on this passage.

[§ 659.] 3. The particular cases in which the gerund, and, under the limitations above mentioned, the participle future passive are used, are the following:

(a) The genitive of the gerund is used after substantives and after relative adjectives. (See § 436.) In English, substantives and relative adjectives are followed either by of," with the participle present, or by "to," with the infinitive; e. g., ars dicendi, the art of speaking; discendi cupidus, desirous to learn. Such substantives, among many others, are, ars, causa, consilium, consuetudo, cupiditas, facultas, occasio, potestas, spes, studium, voluntas. The ablatives causa and gratia are also joined with the genitive of the gerund; e. g., discendi causa, for the sake or purpose of learning; quidam canes venandi gratia comparantur.

Note.-It must, however, be observed that with these and other substantives the infinitive may also be used (see § 598), when with a tense of esse they form a periphrasis for a verb which is joined with the infinitive, or when they supply the place of an adjective expression, of which the infinitive is the subject; e. g., Sallust, Cat., 30, quibus omnia honesta atque inhonesta vendere mos erat, with whom it was a custom, or who were accustomed; Cic., Tusc., i., 41, tempus est abire, it is time, that is, tempestivum est, it is proper to go; but we may also say est (i. e., adest) tempus abeundi; as in Quintil., xi., 3, 61, jam tempus est dicendi, quae sit apta pronuntiatio; Liv., ii., 53, Mos, credo, non placebat, sine Romano duce exercituque socios propriis viribus consiliisque bella gerere: here the accusative with the infinitive depends upon the whole construction, and more especially upon placebat, for else it would have been necessary to say sociorum mos bella gerendi. All other constructions, especially the infinitive after relative adjectives, are poetical.

Beate vivendi cupiditate incensi omnes sumus, Cicero. Parsimonia est scientia vitandi sumptus supervacuos, aut ars re familiari moderate utendi, Senec., de Benef., ii., 34. Postremo Catilina dissimulandi causa aut sui expurgandı, sicuti jurgio lacessitus foret, in senatum venit, Sallust Cat., 31.

Epaminondas studiosus erat audiendi, Nep., Epam, 3

(b) If the verb governs the accusative, the passive construction with the participle future is commonly preferred.

Quis ignorat Gallos usque ad hanc diem retinere illam immanem ac barbaram consuetudinem hominum immolandorum? Cic., p. Font., 10.

Inita sunt (a Catilina ejusque sociis) consilia urbis delendae, civium trucidandorum, nominis Romani extinguendi, Cic., p. Muren., 37.

Timotheus rei militaris (belli gerendi) fuit peritus, neque minus civitatis regendae, Nep., Timoth., 1.

[ 660.] Note 1.-The rule respecting the agreement of the participle with the noun in gender and number is apparently violated in the genitive of the personal pronouns, since tui, even when feminine, is joined with the masculine or neuter form of the participle; Plaut., Trucul., ii., 4, 19, quoniam tui videndi est copia; Ovid, Heroid., xx., 74, copia placandi sit modo parva tui, and vestri and sui, even when they are plural, are joined with the singular of the participle. Thus we read, in Liv., xxi., 41, non vereor ne quis hoc me vestri adhortandi causa magnifice loqui existimet; Cic., de Divin., ii., 17, doleo tantum Stoicos vestros Epicureis irridendi sui facultatem dedisse; in Cat., i., 3, quum multi principes civitatis Romā non tam sui conservandi, quam tuorum consiliorum reprimendorum causa profugerunt; and frequently in Caesar; e. g., Bell. Gall., iii., 6, neque sui colligendi hostibus facultatem relinquunt; iv., 13, in castra venerunt, sui purgandi causa. No instance has yet been found of a feminine mei or nostri being joined with the mascul. (or neuter) of the participle, but there is no reason for doubting it. It must be supposed that this peculiarity arises from the singular form of these genitives, which are properly derived from the neuters meum, tuum, suum, nostrum, vestrum (analogous to the Greek Tò tuòv, Tò nμétεpov). But with the demonstrative pronouns, ejus, hujus, illius, the rule respecting the agreement between the noun and participle is observed, although ejus, referring to a woman, is found with the genit. masc. of the participle, in Terent., Phorm., i., 3, 24, and Hec., iii., 3, 12 (for in Phorm., v., 6, 40, this is only a correction of Bentley).

[ 661.] A similar irregularity, but more difficult to explain, occurs in the combination of the genitive of the gerund with the genitive plural of substantives, instead of the accusative. It is found not only in some passages of Plautus and Terence, and frequently in Gellius, who was fond of reviving obsolete forms, but also in the following passages of Cicero, de Invent., ii., 2, ex majore enim copia nobis, quam illi, fuit exemplorum eligendi potestas; de Univ., § 9, reliquorum siderum quae causa collocandi fuerit, quaeque eorum sit collocatio, in alium sermonem differendum est; in Verr., ii., 31, homines quibus ne rejiciundi quidem amplius quam trium judicum praeclarae leges Corneliae faciunt potestatem; in Verr., iv., 47, earum autem rerum nullam sibi iste neque infitiandi rationem, neque defendendi facultatem reliquit ; Philip., V., 3, Agitur, utrum M. Antonio facultas detur opprimendae rei publicae, caedis faciendae bonorum, diripiendae urbis, agrorum suis latronibus condonandi, populum Romanum servitute opprimendi: an horum nihil facere ei liceat. It once occurs in Cicero with the genit. plur. of a pronoun; de Fin., v., 7, eorum (for ea) adipiscendi causa. Comp. Sueton., Aug., 98, permissa licentia diripiendi pomorum, with the remarks of the commentators. We are of opinion that the noun, which properly depends upon the gerund, is by some confusion, of which instances occur in every language, connected and made to depend upon the substantive. Suetonius, e. g., might have said licentia diripiendi poma, or licentia pomorum diripiendorum; but what he does say is Oo

a combination of both. Another method of explaining this peculiarity is adopted by Kritz (on Sallust, Cat., 31), who thinks that the gerund and the leading substantive are so closely united as to constitute only one idea, and form, as it were, only one compound word; as, eligendi potestas (elective power), exemplorum (of examples). But see Madvig on Cic., de Fin., i., 18, § 60.

[$ 662.] Note 2.-The genitive in general serves to express quality in the case of a substantive joined to an adjective; and hence the genitive, not only of a gerund, but of a substantive joined with the participle future passive and esse, is used in the sense of "having a tendency to a thing," or, "serving a certain purpose;" e. g., Sallust, Cat., 6, Regium imperium initio conservandae libertatis atque augendae rei publicae fuerat; Caes., Bell. Alex., 65, quum multa contra morem consuetudinemque militarem fierent, quae dissolvendae disciplinae severitatisque essent; Liv., xxvii., 9, haec prodendi imperii Romani, tradendae Hannibali victoriae sunt; xl., 29, lectis rerum summis quum animadvertisset pleraque dissolvendarum religionum esse, L. Petillio dixit, sese eos libros in ignem conjecturum esse. The same construction occurs frequently in this author; comp. iii., 39, and xxxviii., 50, nihil tam aequandae libertatis esse, and v., 3, with the notes of Gronovius and Drakenborch. Esse must be understood in Sallust, Jug., 88, quae postquam gloriosa modo neque belli patrandi cognovit ; and in direct connexion with a substantive in Sallust's speech of Lepidus, in the Fragm. Hist., lib. i., Sulla eo processit, ut nihil gloriosum nisi tutum et omnia retinendae dominationis honesta aestu met; i. e., omnia quae sunt dominationis retinendae. In Cicero this use of the genitive with esse occurs only de Leg., ii., 23, Cetera in duodecim (tabulis) minuendi sunt sumptus lamentationisque funeris; and in Verr., ii., 53, ut studia cupiditatesque honorum atque ambitiones ex omnibus civitatibus tolleret, quae res evertendae rei publicae solent esse, which, according to the above examples, it is better to consider as a genitive than as a dative, for which Garatoni takes it.

(Carthagine) pro se quisque quae diutinae obsidionis tolerandae sunt, ex agris convehit, Liv., xxx., 9.

[§ 663.] Note 3.-It is a deviation from the ordinary principles of the Latin Syntax, and a decided imitation of the Greek idiom, to use the genitive of the gerund to express a purpose or intention (it does not occur in Cicero), for this is generally expressed by the addition of causa, or by the dative of the gerund. (See § 764.) Another irregular use of the genitive of the gerund, instead of the infinitive, occurs in Tacit., Ann., ii., 43, Plancinam haud dubie Augusta monuit muliebri aemulatione Agrippinam insectandi, though the genitive may, perhaps, be explained as dependent upon monere; but in Ann., xiii., 26, nec grave manumissis, per idem obsequium retinendi libertatem, per quod assecuti sunt; XV., 21, maneat provincialibus potentiam suam tali modo ostentandi; and xv., 5, Vologesi vetus et penitus infixum erat arma Romana vitandi-the genitive of the gerund is used quite in the sense of the infinitive, and can scarcely be explained otherwise than by the ellipsis of negotium, Tò Tov pɛúуει. Compare the observations of Gronovius on Livy, xxxv., 49.

[§ 664.] 4. The dative of the gerund is used after adjectives which govern this case (§ 409), especially after utilis, inutilis, noxius, par, aptus, idoneus, and after verbs and other expressions denoting a purpose or design. In this sense, however, it is much more common, at least in Cicero, to use ad with the accusative of the gerund, or a clause with ut. (The expressions which, from their meaning, are most frequently joined with the dative of the gerund, are, studere, intentum esse, tempus impendere, tempus