&c., with the preposition in, but the concrete nouns puer, adolescens, juvenis, senex, &c., are joined to the verb (§ 304). The same frequently takes place in stating the number of years that a person has lived, provided there are adjectives ending in enarius with this meaning; as, tricenarius, sexagenarius, octogenarius, perhaps also vicenarius, septuagenarius, nonagenarius (see § 119). Those in ennis, from annus, are less frequently used in the sense of substantives.

[§ 674.] 3. When official titles are used to indicate time, the concrete nouns usually take their place; e. g., instead of ante or post consulatum Ciceronis, it is preferable to say ante or post Ciceronem consulem; and instead of in consulatu Ciceronis, it is better to use the ablat. absolute, Cicerone consule; and, in like manner, with the substantive pronouns, ante or post te praetorem is more common than ante or post praeturam tuam, and te praetore is better than in praetura tua.

[§ 675.] 4. Sometimes abstract nouns are used instead of concrete ones; thus we frequently find nobilitas for nobiles, juventus for juvenes, vicinia for vicini, servitium for servi, levis armatura for leviter armati. Other words of this kind; as, remigium for remiges, matrimonium for uxores, ministerium for ministri, and advocatio for advocati, are less common, and occur only here and there. See Drakenborch on Livy, iii., 15, and on Silius Ital., xv., 748. Adolescentia is not used in this way; it only signifies the age of an adolescens, but is never equivalent to adolescentes, as juventus is to juvenes.

We must add that the neuters nihil and quidquam are sometimes used instead of the masculines nemo and quisquam, as in the expressions hoc victore nihil moderatius est; non potest insipiente fortunato quidquam fieri intolerabilius, Cic., Lael., 15.

[§ 676.] 5. Names of nations are used as adjectives, and joined to other substantives which denote persons; as, miles Gallus, Syrus philosophus. Comp. § 257.

The use of substantives in tor and trix as adjectives has been sufficiently explained above (§ 102). They are most frequently joined as predicates to the substantive animus, as in Sallust, animus Catilinae cujuslibet rei simulator ac dissimulator; animus rector humani generis, &c.

The substantive nemo (nobody) is frequently joined to

other substantive denoting male persons, in such a way that it becomes equivalent to the adjective nullus; Cic., de Orat., i., 28, saepe enim soleo audire Roscium, quum ita dicat, se adhuc reperire discipulum, quem quidem probaret, potuisse neminem; Tusc., v., 22, adhuc neminem cognovi poetam, qui sibi non optimus videretur; de Off., iii., 2, ut nemo pictor esset inventus, qui Coae Veneris eam partem, quam Apelles inchoatam reliquisset, absolveret; de Orat., i., 4, nemo fere adolescens non sibi ad dicendum studio omni enitendum putavit. Sometimes we even find homo nemo; as, Cic., ad Fam., xiii., 55, tum vero, posteaquam mecum in bello atque in re militari fuit, tantam in eo virtutem, prudentiam, fidem cognovi, ut hominem neminem pluris faciam; de Leg., ii., 16, quum nemo vir bonus ab improbo se donari velit. Quisquam, which has likewise the value of a substantive, sometimes follows the same principle; hence we find quisquam homo, quisquam civis, and homo itself is joined pleonastically to nouns expressing age; as, homo adolescens, homo juvenis; this, however, may be explained by the fact of adolescens and juvenis being properly adjectives. Nullus and ullus, on the other hand, are used as substantives, instead of nemo and quisquam, especially the genitive nullius and the ablative nullo, neminis not being used at all, and nemine very rarely. See the manner in which Cicero varies his expression in p. Muren., 40, si injuste neminem laesit, si nullius aures voluntatemve violavit, si nemini, ut levissime dicam, odio nec domi, nec militiae fuit; de Off., i., 4, honestum vere dicimus, etiamsi a nullo laudetur, natura esse laudabile; Lael., 9, ut quisque sic munitus est, ut nullo egeat.

[§ 677.] 6. Nihil, properly a substantive, is used adverbially as an emphatic non (like the Greek ovdóv for ov), in the sense of "in no way," "in no respect;" e. g., nihil me fallis, nihil te impedio, nihil te moror, Graeciae nihil cedimus; Terent., Andr., init., nihil istac opus est arte; Cic., in Rull., ii., 23, Pompeius beneficio isto legis nihil utitur; Liv., iv., 33, ea species nihil terruit equos; xxii., 45, nihil consulto collega; xxxviii., 40, Thraces nihil se moverunt. Also with adjectives, Liv., iv., 9, nihil Romanae plebis similis; Sallust., Cat., 17, Senatus nihil sane intentus. Nonnihil is likewise used adverbially in the sense of "to some extent," "in some measure;" e. g., Cic., ad Fam., iv., 14, nonnihil me consolatur quum recor

dor. Quidquam, like nihil, is also used as an adverb; as, Cic., de Invent., ii., 27, ne hoc quidem ipso quidquam opus fuit. Respecting aliquid, e. g., res aliquid differt, see § 385, and compare what is said of quid in § 711.

[§ 678.] 7. Some substantives are used frequently for the purpose of forming circumlocutions, especially res, genus, modus, ratio, animus, and corpus.

Res is often used for the neuter of pronouns and adjectives (see above, 363), in such a manner that sometimes even references to the preceding res are expressed by a neuter; as, Cic., de Divin., i., 52, earum rerum utrumque; Sallust, Jug., 102, humanarum rerum pleraque fortuna regit; Liv., xliii., 17, nequis ullam rem magistratibus Romanis conferret, praeterquam quod senatus censuisset; Cic., de Divin., ii., 57, mens provida rerum futurarum, ut ea non modo cernat, &c.

Genus is used in circumlocutions like the English kind, regard, respect; in hoc genere, in this respect; quo in genere, in which respect; in omni genere te quotidie desidero, in every respect: in like manner, omni genere virtutis florere, "to be possessed of every virtue," instead of which we at least should be inclined to say virtute omnis generis.

Modus very frequently serves as a circumlocution for adverbs (like the English way or manner); in this manner, hoc or tali modo, or with the preposition in: in hunc modum locutus est, majorem in modum peto (I beg more urgently), mirum (mirabilem, incredibilem) in modum gaudeo, miserandum in modum necatus est, servilem in modum cruciari. Ad is found less frequently; e. g., Cicero, Est igitur ad hunc modum sermo nobis institutus; Caesar, Ipsorum naves ad hunc modum factae armataeque erant. The genitive modi with a pronoun supplies the place of the pronomina qualitatis (§ 130), which are either wanting, or not much used. Thus, cujusmodi is used for qualis; hujusmodi, istiusmodi, ejusmodi, ejusdemmodi, for talis, and cujusdammodi for the indefinite pronomen qualitatis, which does not exist.

Ratio properly signifies "an account," and is also used in the same sense as the English "on account of;" e. g., Cicero, propter rationem belli Gallici, equivalent to propter bellum Gallicum; in Verr., i., 40, multa propter rationem brevitatis ac temporis praetermittenda existimo, for the sake of brevity, brevi tatis causa. Sometimes, however, this explanation is inapplicable, and we must have recourse to the supposition of a mere circumlocution; e. g., in Verr., iv., 49, oratio mea, aliena ab judiciorum ratione, instead of a judiciis; p. Muren., 17, quod enim fretum, quem Euripum tot motus, tantas, tam varias habere putatis agitationes fluctuum, quantas perturbationes et quantos aestus habet ratio comitiorum? instead of comitia; and in the same chapter, Nihil est incertius vulgo, nihil obscurius voluntate hominum, nihil fallacius ratione tota comitiorum, than the whole character of the comitia, Tò Tv άρxaipeσiov; comp. the same speech, chap. 2, praecipere tempestatum rationem et praedonum; de Off., ii., 17, tota igitur ratio talium largitionum vitiosa est, sed interdum necessaria, instead of tales largitiones omnes, which, however, would be less idiomatic.

Animus (and the plural animi, when several persons are spoken of) is often used as a periphrasis for the person himself, but only when the feel ings of a person are spoken of. Thus we say, e. g., animus (meus) abhor ret ab aliqua re, instead of ego; and in like manner, animum contineo or submitto, instead of me; cogitare aliquid cum animo suo, statuere apud animum suum, pro animi mei voluntate, and very frequently animum alicujus movere, commovere, turbare, offendere, &c.

Corpus is used in some expressions instead of the personal pronoun; e. g, imponere corpus lecto, to go to bed; levare corpus in cubitum, to lean upon the elbow; corpus applicare stipiti, to lean against a tree; librare corpus, t swing one's self.

ope

[§ 679.] 8. The periphrasis, by means of causā and rā, is common in ordinary language; hence it has been noticed above, § 454 and 455. Gratia is used in the same sense as causa, but less frequently; e. g., Cic., de Nat. Deor., ii., 63, tantumque abest ut haec bestiarum causa parata sint, ut ipsas bestias hominum gratia generatas esse videamus; ergo (originally epyw), which has the same meaning, occurs still more rarely, and chiefly in early juridical language; e. g., in the formula in Cic., ad Att., iii., 23, si quid contra alias leges hujus legis ergo factum est; de Opt. Gen. Or., 7, donari virtutis ergo benivolentiaeque.

Nomen, also, belongs to this class of substantives, inasmuch as the ablative nomine (in respect of) is often used in the sense of "on account of," or, 66 on the part of;" e. g., Cic., p. Muren., 38, neque isti me meo nomine interfici, sed vigilantem Consulem de rei publicae praesidio demovere volunt; ad Quint. Frat., ii., 2, Quod ad me Lentuli nomine scripsisti, locutus sum cum Cincio.

[§ 680.] 9. Names of nations are very often used for those of countries, and many names of countries very seldom occur at all. (See § 95.) In Nepos we read, in Persas proficisci, ex Medis ad adversariorum hibernacula pervenit, in Lucanis aliquid fecit, and similar expressions are of very frequent occurrence in other writers also, in Colchos abiit, in Bactrianis Sogdianisque urbes condidit; and we can only say in Volscis res bene gestae sunt, in Aequis nihil memorabile actum, in Sabinis natus, versatus, for there are no names for the countries inhabited by these people; in like manner, there is no name (at least in Latin writers) for the town of the Leontini, who are mentioned so frequently. Hence verbs are joined with names of nations, which are properly applied only to countries; thus we commonly read in the historians vastare, devastare, and also ferro atque igni vastare; e. g., Samnites, instead of agros Samnitium. Liv., xxiii, 43, Nolani in medio siti; and names of nations, on the other hand, are construed as names of towns; e. g., Liv., xxiv., 30, Leontinos ire, and Cicero often has Leontinis, Centuripinis instead of in Leontinis, &c.

[§ 681.] 10. Verbal substantives are sometimes joined with the case governed by the verb from which they are derived. There is only one instance of the accusative in Plaut., Asin., v., 2, 70, Quid tibi huc receptio ad te est vi

rum meum? but the dative is more frequent, Cic., de Leg., i., 15, Justitia est obtemperatio scriptis legibus institutisque populorum; Topic., 5, traditio alteri; p. Planc., 1, quum tam multos et bonos viros ejus honori viderem esse fautores; Liv., xxiii., 35, praeceperat, ne qua exprobratio cuiquam veteris fortunae discordiam inter ordines sereret. Hence Cicero says, reditus Romam, Narbone reditus, adventus in Italiam, domum itio, and Caesar, domum reditio. The dative, which is often joined to the words legatus, praefectus, and accensus, instead of the genitive, is of a different kind, these words being originally participles, and therefore admitting both constructions, legatus Luculli and Lucullo, praefectus castrorum and praefectus urbi.

B. Adjectives.

[§ 682.] 1. An adjective is sometimes used in Latin where in English we employ an adverb. This is the case when the state or condition of the subject during an action is described, and when the action remains the same, in whatever state the subject may be. Hence we say, Socrates venenum laetus hausit: invitus dedi pecuniam; imprudens in hoc malum incidi; si peccavi insciens feci; nemo saltat sobrius; perterritus, trepidus, or, intrepidus ad me venit; but we may say, tardus or tarde ad me venisti, laetus or laete vivit, libens hoc feci or libenter hoc feci, since here the action itself may be conceived as being modified. In such cases the poets are always more inclined to use the adjective, either because it has more of a descriptive power, or because they like to deviate from ordinary practice. Horace, e. g., says, domesticus otior, vespertinus tectum peto; and Persius, te juvat nocturnis impallescere chartis, instead of which the adverbs domi, vesperi, and noctu would be used in prose. But it must be remarked, in general, that the Latin language is partial to expressing adverbial modifications by an adjective or participle joined to the substantive; e. g., mortuo Socrati magnus honos habitus est, where we should say, "great honour was paid to Socrates after (his) death;" Nep., Att., 3, Quamdiu affuit, ne qua sibi statua poneretur restitit, absens prohibere non potuit, in his absence; Liv., xxi., 25, praetor effusum agmen ad Mutinam ducit, he led the army, without keeping it together, to Mutina.

[§ 683.] 2. The origin from a place or country is gen