CHAPTER XIII.

GENDER OF THE NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION.

[§ 53.] 1. NOUNS in us, er, and ir are masculine; those in um, and the Greek nouns in on, are neuter.

2. Of those in us, however, the following are feminine: the names of plants and precious stones, as well as those of towns and islands, with a few exceptions. (See above, § 39.) It must be observed that in many cases where the name of a tree ends in us fem., there is a form in um denoting the fruit of the tree, e. g., cerasus, cerasum; malus, malum; morus, morum; pirus, pirum; prunus, prunum; pomus, pomum; but ficus signifies both the tree and the fruit. There are only four other genuine Latin words in us which are feminine, viz., alvus, humus, vannus, and colus, which, however, is sometimes declined after the fourth declension, gen. us. Pampinus, a branch of a vine, is rarely feminine, but commonly masculine. Virus (juice or poison) and pelagus (тò méλayos, the sea) are neuter. Vulgus (the people) is sometimes masculine, but more frequently neuter.

[54.] Note.-With regard to the numerous Greek feminines in us (or os) which have been adopted into the Latin language, such as the compounds of nodos: exodus, methodus, periodus, and synodus, the student must be referred to his Greek grammar, for the Latin differs in this respect from the Greek. The words biblus, and papyrus (the Egyptian papyrus), byssus, and carbasus (a fine flax and the linen made out of it), are feminine, being names of plants; but they retain this gender also when they denote things manufactured from them. Pharus, being the name of an island, is feminine; but it is also feminine in the sense of a light-house, which meaning it obtained from the fact of the first light-house being built in that island near Alexandria; it is, however, now and then used as a masculine (Sueton., Claud., 20). Arctus (os), denoting a bear, is properly both masc. and fem.; but as the name of a constellation, it is in Latin always feminine. Barbitus (a lyre), or barbitos, is sometimes used as fem. and sometimes as masc., but we also find hoc barbiton.

We must notice here especially a number of words which in Greek are properly adjectives, and are used as feminine substantives, because a substantive of this gender is understood. Such words are: abyssus, atõmus, dialectus, diphthongus, eremus, paragraphus, diametrus, and perimetrus, the last two of which, however, are used by Latin writers also with the Greek termination os. For the substantives understood in these cases, see the Greek Grammar. As different substantives may be understood, we have both antidotus and antidotum. The word epōdus also belongs to this class, but its gender varies according to its different meanings: when it denotes a lyric epilogue, it is feminine; when it denotes a shorter iambic verse after a longer one, or when it is the name of the peculiar species of Horatian poetry, it is masculine.

CHAPTER XIV.

THIRD DECLENSION.-GENITIVE.

[§ 55.] NOUNS of the third declension form their geni tive in is. The nominative has a great variety of termi nations, for sometimes there is no particular ending, and the nominative itself is the crude form,* such as it usually appears after the separation of the termination of the genitive; frequently, however, the nominative has a special ending (s). The former is, generally speaking, the case with those words the crude form of which ends in 7 or r, so that the nominative ends in the same consonants, and the genitive is formed by simply adding is; e. g., sol, consul, calcar, agger, auctor, dolor, murmur. Words like pater and imber, the crude form of which appears in the genitive and ends in r, with a consonant before it, as patr-is, imbr-is, admit of a double explanation: either the nominative was increased for the purpose of facilitating the pronunciation, or the genitive rejected the short e; the former, however, is the more probable supposition. In some words the nominative has s instead of r; as, flos, gen. flor-is; tellus, tellur-is; in addition to which the vowel sometimes undergoes a change, as in corpus, corpor-is; onus, oner-is. When the crude form ends in n, with a vowel before it, the formation of the nominative is likewise accompanied by changes: on throws off the n, and in becomes en, or is changed into o. Thus, leo is made from leon (leon-is), carmen from carmin (carmin-is), and virgo from virgin (virgin-is.) Only when the genitive ends in enis, the nominative retains en, as in lien-is, lien. 2. The particular termination which the nominative receives in other cases is e for neuters; as, mar-is, mar-e, and s, or x, which arises out of s, for masculines and feminines. This s is sometimes added to the final consonant of the crude form without any change, as in urb-is, urb-s;

[See some excellent remarks on the crude forms of nouns, in Allen's Etymological Analysis of Latin Verbs, p. 8, seqq. As every crude form must end either in a consonant or a vowel (a, e, i, o, u), we have the more philosophical arrangement of the consonant-declension on the one hand, and the a-declension, e-declension, i-declension, o-declension, and u-declension on the other. The term crude form was first employed, as is thought, by Bopp, in the Annals of Oriental Literature, vol. i.]-Am. Ed.

duc-is, dux (ducs); legis,lex (legs); when the crude form ends in d or t, these consonants are dropped before the s; e. g., frond-is, frons; mont-is, mons; aetāt-is, aetās ; seget-is, seges; in addition to this the vowel i, also, is sometimes changed into ě, as in milit-is, miles; judic-is, judex. In all these cases where the nominative is formed by the addition of an s to the final consonant of the crude form, the nominative has one syllable less than the genitive, or, in other words, the s assumes an è or i before it, and then the nominative has the same number of syllables as the genitive, or, in case the nominative assumes i, both cases are quite the same; e. g., nub-es, civ-is, pan-is.

These are the most essential points in the formation of the nominative in the third declension. We shall now proceed to the particulars, taking the nominative, as is the usual practice, as the case given, and we shall point out in what way the genitive is formed from it.

[§ 56.] 1. The nouns in a, which are neuters of Greek origin, make their genitive in ătis; as, poëma, poëmatis.

2. Those in e change e into is; as, mare, maris; Praeneste, Praenestis, and probably also caepe, caepis, for which, however, there is also the form cepa, ae.

Some of

3. The nouns in i and y are Greek neuters. them are indeclinable; as, gummi; and others have the regular genitive in is; as, sināpi, sinapis (there is, however, a second nominative in is, as in several other words ending in i, as haec sinapis); misy, misyis and misys or misyos. The compounds of meli (honey) alone make their genitive according to the Greek in itis; as, melomeli,melomelitis.

4. Those in o (common) add nis to form the genitive, sometimes only lengthening the o, and sometimes changing it into i. Of the former kind are carbo, latro, leo, ligo, pavo, praedo, sermo; and all those ending in io; as, actio, dictio, pugio. Of the latter kind (genit. inis) are all abstract nouns in do; as, consuetudo, inis; most nouns in go; as, imago, virgo, origo; and a few others; as, cardo, hirundo, turbo, homo, nemo. Caro has carnis. The names of nations in o have this vowel mostly short; as, Macedones, Senones, Saxones; it is long only in Tunes, Lacones, Nasamones, Suessōnes, and Vettones.

5. The only nouns ending in care alec or allec, allex, gen. allēcis; and lac, gen. lactis.

6. Nouns ending in 7 form the genitive by merely adding is, such as sol, sal, consul, pugil, animal. Mel has mellis, and in plur. mella; fel has fellis, but is without a plural.

7. Those in en (which are all neuters, with the exception of pecten) make inis; as, carmen, flumen, lumen, nomen. Those in en retain the long e and have enis; but there are only two genuine Latin words of this kind, rēn and liën ; for lichen, splen, and attagen are of Greek origin.

Greek words in ăn, ēn, în, ÿn, and on follow the Greek rules in regard to the length or shortness of the vowel, and also in regard to the insertion of a t: Paean, Paeānis; Siren and Troezen, enis; Philopoemen, Philopoeměnis; Eleusin, Eleusinis; Phorcyn, Phorcinis; agon, agonis; canon, canonis; Cimon, Cimonis; Marathon, onis; Xenophon, Xenophontis. It is, however, to be observed that very few Greek words in ων, ωνος (except names of towns) have in Latin the nominative on, but generally o. Thus we always read Hiero, Laco, Plato, Zeno, and in Cicero, also Dio and Solo; in the poets, on the other hand, and in Nepos and Curtius among the prose writers, we find several nominatives in ōn; as, Conon, Dion, Phocion, Hephaestion. The name Apollo is completely Latinized, and makes the genit. Apollinis. Those in wv, wvros vary, and we find Antipho without the n, though most end in on; as, Xenophon. Those in wv, ovos, and wv, ovтoc, usually retain in Latin the same nominative in on, but we always find Macedo, and never Macedon.

[§ 57.] 8. Those ending in r must be distinguished according to the vowel which precedes it: they may end in ar, er, yr, or, or ur.

(a) Those in ar have sometimes aris, as in calcar, lucar, pulvinar, torcular, and Nar; and sometimes ăris; as, baccar, jubar, nectar, lär (plur. lares), pār, and its compounds (e. g., impar, impăris), and the proper names Cæsar, Hamilcar, and Arar. But Lar, or Lars, the Etruscan title, has Lartis. Far makes its genitive farris, and hepar, hepatis.

(b) Many of the Latin words in ĕr make ĕris; as, agger, aggeris; mulier, mulieris, &c., and the adjectives pauper and uber. Others drop the short e; as, for instance, all those ending in ter (e. g., venter, uter, pater), with the exception of later, and the words imber, September, October.

November, December. Iter makes its genit. (from a different nominat.) itineris. Juppiter (Jovi' pater) makes the genitive Jovis, without the addition of patris. Greek words in er follow the rules of the Greek language, whence we say crater, eris; aēr, aĕris. Ver (the spring), gen. vēris, originally belonged to the same class.

(c) Nouns ending in yr are Greek, and follow the rules of the Greek Grammar: martīr, martyris.

(d) Those in or have ōris; as, amor, error, soror; but arbor, the three neuters ador, aequor, marmor, and the adjective memor, have õris. Cor has cordis, and so also in the compounded adjectives concors, discors, misericors. Greek proper names, such as Hector, Nestor, and others, have oris, as in Greek.

(e) Those in ur have uris, e. g., fulgur, vultur, and the adject. cicur. Für (a thief) alone has furis; and the four neuters ebur, femur, jecur, and robur have oris, as ebõris, roboris. Jecur has, besides jecoris, also the forms jecinoris, jocinoris, and jocineris.

[§ 58.] 9. Those ending in s are very numerous; they may terminate in as, es, is, os, us, aus, or in s, with a consonant preceding it.

(a) Those in as form their genitive in atis; as, aetas, aetatis. Anas alone has anătis; mas has măris; vas (a surety), vădis; vās (a vessel), väsis, and as, assis. The Greek words vary according to their gender; the masculines make antis, the feminines ădis, and the neuters atis. (See the Greek Grammar.) Consequently, Pallas, the name of a male being, has the genit. Pallantis, like gigas, gigantis; as the name of the goddess Minerva, Pallădis; and artocreas neut. has artocreătis.

(b) Those ending in es must be divided into two classes. Those belonging to the first increase in the genitive, the letter d or t, which was dropped in the nominative, being restored to its place, and their termination is either itis, ētis, ētis, or idis, ēdis, ēdis. The genitive in itis occurs in most of them, as in antistes, comes, eques, hospes, miles, pedes, satelles, caespes, fomes, gurges, limes, merges, palmes, stipes, and trames, together with the adjectives ales, cocles, dives, sospes, and superstes, in all of which the es is short. (See § 28.) The following make their genitive in ĕtis: abies, aries, paries, interpres, seges, teges, and the adjectives hebes, indiges, praepes, and teres. The genit. in ētis oc

E