tached to the negative adverb vix-vixdum, it signifies. "scarcely yet;" e. g., Cic., ad Att., ix., 2, Vixdum epistolam tuam legeram, quum ad me Curtius venit.

[§ 734.] 15. The conjunction vel (or), which originally serves to correct an expression, acquired through an ellipsis the meaning of the adverb "even," and enhances the sense of the word modified by it; e. g., Cic., de Fin., i., 2, quum Sophocles vel optime scripserit Electram, tamen male conversam Attii mihi legendam puto: here the expression is to be explained by supplying the word bene before vel. In this sense vel is used frequently; as in Cicero, hac re vel maxime praestat; quam sint morosi qui amant, vel ex hoc intelligi potest; isto modo vel consulatus vituperabilis est; per me vel stertas licet. The derivation of this particle from velle (wilt thou?) accounts for its signifying "for example," or "to mention a case at once;" e. g., Cic., ad Fam., ii., 13, Raras tuas quidem, sed suaves accipio litteras: vel quas proxime acceperam, quam prudentes! p. Flacc., 33, Ita scitote, judices, esse cetera. quod ait L. Flaccum sibi dare cupisse, ut a fide se abduceret, HS. vicies. Velut is more frequently used in this sense; e. g., Cic., de Fin., ii., 35, Non elogia monumentorum hoc significant? velut hoc ad portam; de Nat. Deor., ii., 48, Veluti crocodili-simulac niti possunt, aquam persequuntur.

Vel

[§ 735.] 16. The conjunction nisi, by omitting its verb or uniting it with the leading verb, acquires the sense of he adverb "except," which is generally expressed by praeterquam or the preposition praeter. (See § 323.) This, however, is the case only after negatives and negative questions; e. g., Nepos, Miltiades, 4, Athenienses auxilium nusquam nisi a Lacedaemoniis petiverunt ; Cic., p. Planc., 33, Quid est pietas, nisi voluntas grata in parentes? p. Sext., 60, Quem unquam senatus civem nisi me nationibus exteris commendavit? instead of which we might say in the first passage, praeterquam a Lacedaemoniis, and in the second praeter me; and we must say so when no negative precedes; e. g., Liv., xxiv., 16, praeda omnis praeterquam hominum captorum (or praeter homines captos) militi concessa est. But the expression "except that," may be rendered in Latin either by nisi quod or praeterquam quod, so that here we may have nisi without a preceding negative; e. g., Cic., ad Att., ii., 1, Tuscula

num et Pompeianum me valde delectant, nisi quod me aere alieno obruerunt. (Nisi ut are likewise joined together, but in a different sense, ut retaining its proper signification; e. g., nihil aliud ex hac re quaero, nisi ut homines intelligant, except that people may see.)

66

As the Latin nisi after negatives is rendered in English not only by "except," but by "than," the beginner must beware of translating this "than" by quam. It is only after nihil aliud that we may use either nisi or quam, nisi referring to nihil, and quam to aliud. The difference is this, that nihil aliud nisi signifies "nothing farther," or "nothing more," and nihil aliud quam, "nothing else," or no other thing but this particular one.' Hence, Cic. (de Orat., ii., 12) says, Erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio (but it should be more); de Off., i., 23, Bellum ita suscipiatur, ut nihil aliud nisi pax quaesita videatur (and not other advantages besides); Tusc., i., 34, Nihil aliud est discere, nisi recordari. Praeter is used in the same sense in Cic., de Off., ii., 2, nec quidquam aliud est philosophia praeter studium sapientiae (nothing more). But in de Leg., i., 8, we read, Virtus est nihil aliud quam in se perfecta et ad summum perducta natura (this definition comprising everything); Nep., Lys., 1, Nihil aliud molitus est quam ut omnes civitates in sua teneret potestate. Quam must, as a matter of course, be used, when it refers to a comparative; as, nihil magis timeo quam illum.

F. Prepositions.

[§ 736.] The use of every separate preposition has been fully explained in Chap. LXV., and there is no farther general remark to be made, except that the beginner must be cautioned not to join two prepositions, as we do in English; e. g., "to speak for and against a law," or, "I have learned this with, and, to some extent, from, him." The only mode of rendering these sentences in Latin is, pro lege et contra legem dicere; haec cum eo, partim etiam ab eo didici. Those dissyllabic prepositions only, which are also used without a noun and as adverbs, may follow another, without being joined with a case; e. g., Cicero, quod aut secundum naturam esset, aut contra; Livy, cis Padum ultraque. Caesar (Bell. Civ., iii., 72) reverses the order, intra extraque munitiones. Compare, also, § 794

G. Conjunctions.

[§ 737.] 1. Respecting the signification of the several conjunctions, see Chap. LXVII. Those who wish to acquire a thorough knowledge of the Latin language cannot bestow too much attention on this part of speech. From a careful observation of their use in good authors, we learn that many combinations have, in fact, quite a different meaning from what lies on the surface. Atque adeo, properly" and even," acquires the power of correcting that which precedes, and also enhances the sense; hence it becomes equivalent to vel potius, or rather. (See § 336. Compare what is said of immo in § 277.) E. g., Cic., in Verr., iii., 8, Tu homo minimi consilii, nullius auctoritatis, injussu populi ac senatus, tota Sicilia recusante, cum maximo detrimento atque adeo exitio vectigalium, totam Hieronicam legem sustulisti. At quam legem corrigit, judices, atque adeo totam tollit? and, Verres tot annis atque adeo saeculis inventus est.

[§ 738.] 2. Attention must be paid to the following peculiarity of the Latin language: when the negative power of a proposition is not expressed by non, but contained in some other word, the negative is usually combined with the copulative conjunction; hence, instead of et and ut with the negatives nemo, nihil, nullus, nunquam, we find much more frequently neque (nec) and ne with the corresponding affirmative words quisquam, ullus, unquam, usquam. It must, however, be observed (see § 709), that "in order that no one" is rendered in Latin by ne quis, and never by ne quisquam. But it should not be forgotten that ne cannot be used everywhere, and that ut nemo, ut nullus, &c., are required in all cases in which ut non must be employed, and not ne. (See § 532.) E. g., Cic., Cat. Maj., 12, impedit enim consilium voluptas ac mentis, ut ita dicam, praestringit oculos, nec habet ullum cum virtute commercium; ibid., 19, horae quidem cedunt, et dies et menses et anni: nec praeteritum tempus unquam revertitur; Sallust, Cat., 29, Senatus decrevit, darent operam consules, ne quid respublica detrimenti caperet; Caes., Bell. Gall., i., 46, Caesar şuis imperavit, ne quod omnino telum in hostes rejicerent.

[§ 739.] 3. When any clause inserted in another has impeded or disturbed the construction, the return to the con

struction of the leading sentence is indicated by one of the conjunctions igitur, verum, verumtamen, sed, sed tamen, which we commonly render by "I say." In Latin, too, inquam is sometimes so used (as in Cic., in Verr., iv., 29, 67; p. Muren., 30, 63), but the conjunctions are much more common; Cic., de Off., iii., 16, M. Cato sententiam dixit, hujus nostri Catonis pater (ut enim ceteri ex patribus, sic hic, qui illud lumen progenuit, ex filio est nominandus): is igitur judex ita pronuntiavit, emptori damnum praestari oportere; Philip., ii., 32, Primum quum Caesar ostendisset, se, priusquam proficisceretur, Dolabellam consulem esse jussurum: quem negant regem, qui et faceret semper ejusmodi aliquid et diceret: sed quum Caesar ita dixisset, tum hic bonus augur eo se sacerdotio praeditum esse dixit, &c. See Heusinger on this passage, and compare in Cat., iii., 2, init.; p. Planc., 4; de Leg., ii., 1, Quare ante mirabar -sed mirabar, ut dixi, &c. As for the other conjunctions used in this manner, see in Cat., iv., 11; Philip., ii., 37; de Fin., ii., 22; p. Rosc. Am., 43, in Verr., iii., 2, init.; ad Att., i., 10, init.; p. Sext., 10, init. Nam is also employed in this way; as, p. Planc., 41. Itaque is doubtful in Cic., de Fin., i,, 6, 19, but occurs in Liv., ii., 12, init. [§ 740.] 4. Siquis often seems to stand for the relative pronoun, as in Greek eris for öçтıç; but it always contains the idea of "perhaps," which it naturally retains from its proper signification of a possible condition; e. g., Liv., xxi., 37, Nuda fere Alpium cacumina sunt, et si quid est pabuli, obruunt nives; Cic., in Verr., v., 25, iste quasi praeda sibi advecta, non praedonibus captis, si qui senes aut deformes erant, eos in hostium numero ducit, qui aliquid formae, aetatis, artificiique habebant, abducit omnes; Brut., 69, C. Cosconius nullo acumine, eam tamen verborum copiam, si quam habebat, populo praebebat. Ernesti proposed to strike out si, but it may be explained in the manner stated above, for Cicero does not even like to admit that Cosconius possessed copia verborum; and in a similar manner he speaks with some doubt of his own eloquence, c. 87, etsi tu melius existimare videris de ea, si quam nunc habemus, facultate; and, also, Divin., 15, ipse Allienus ex ea facultate, si quam habet, aliquantum detracturus est.

[ 741.] 5. The conjunction et (que and atque) not unfrequently connects two substantives, and places them on an equality with each other, although properly one bears to

the other the relation of a genitive or an adjective. This kind of connexion is called ev dià dvoiv, that is, one idea is expressed by two words independent of each other, for a genitive and an adjective, when joined to a substantive, constitute only one idea. When, e. g., Virg., Georg., 1, 192, says, pateris libamus et auro, it is equivalent to pateris aureis; and, Aen., i., 61, molem et montes insuper altos imposuit, equivalent to molem altorum montium. But similar expressions occur also in prose, and oratorical dicion thereby gains in fulness and power; e. g., Cic., in Cat., i., 13, ut saepe homines aegri morbo gravi, quum aestu febrique jactantur, i, e., aestu febris; p. Flacc., 2, quem plurimi cives devincti necessitudine ac vetustate, i. e., vetustate necessitudinis; p. Arch., 6, ex his studiis haec quoque crescit oratio et facultas, i. e., facultas dicendi; in Verr., v., 14, jus imaginis ad memoriam posteritatemque prodere, i. e., ad memoriam posteritatis; ibid., iv., 35, complesse coronis et floribus; and, in Curt., iv., 17, navigia redimita floribus coronisque, with garlands of flowers. It is particularly frequent in Tacitus; as, Ann., ii., 69, carmina et devotiones reperiebantur, for carmina devotionum; ii., 83, tempore ac spatio, for temporis spatio; xii., 27, veteranos coloniamque deducere, for coloniam veteranorum. Of a somewhat different, though similar kind, are those combinations of substantives, where the second contains a more accurate definition of the general meaning of the first. The substantive which occurs most frequently in such combinations is vis; as, vi et armis, vi ac minis, vi et contentione, vi ac necessitate.

CHAPTER LXXXV.

PLEONASM.

[§ 742.] 1. PLEONASM is that mode of expression in which several words of the same or similar meaning are accumulated, or in which a thought is conveyed in more words than are necessary to express the meaning.

2. The first kind of pleonasm does not, properly speaking, belong to Latin grammar. Good authors accumulate words of similar meaning only when they intend to set forth a particular thing forcibly and emphatically, and they take care that there is a certain gradation in the words