cilius quartum et Metilius tertium tribuni plebis; so, also, x., 1, Marcis Livio Dentre et Aemilio consulibus; x., 40, equitibus Gaios Caedicium et Trebonium praefecit. Others have doubted this, because the same praenomen is very frequently repeated, and the question cannot be decided by means of MSS. But the plural of the praenomen, joined with duo, is well attested; Sueton., Aug., 100, Obiit in cubiculo eodem, quo pater Octavius, duobus Sextis Pompeio et Appuleio consulibus; Liv., v., 24, duos Publios Cornelios, Cossum et Scipionem.

CHAPTER LXXXVII.

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS, AND STRUCTURE OF PERIODS.

[§ 786.] 1. WHEN we arrange the words according to the logical connexion of ideas, the first place next to the conjunction or connecting relative is taken by the subject; next comes the verb with its adverb; then the cases of the nearer or remoter object; and last, the remaining additions of prepositions with their cases. The adjective closely adheres to the substantive which it qualifies. This is commonly called the grammatical order of construction, which is strictly followed in most modern languages. But the Latin language may place any one of the four principal parts first, and has, besides, great freedom in the arrangement of the rest: the adverb may be separated from the verb, and the adjective from the substantive, being placed either before or after, or even removed to some distance. Hence oratorical effect may be produced, independent of accent, by the position of words, and the language affords great facility for the poetical numerus. prose, however, the following general principle is observed: words which are necessary for the complete expression of a thought are put together, and should not be separated by the introduction of ideas not connected with the main thought.

In

[§ 787.] 2. But as we do not always speak emphatically, and as in ordinary discourse we naturally choose the simplest expression for our thoughts, a certain arrangement has become established in good Latin prose, especially in historical narrative; and this arrangement (which is not departed from without a special reason) is this: the subject is placed first; then follow the oblique cases, with all other unemphatic additions, and last of all, the verb. For in the construction of a Latin sentence we should avoid, what is so common in modern languages, the introduction

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of a train of subordinate and additional matter after the expression of the principal ideas: a Latin sentence is compact, being enclosed by the subject on the one hand, and by the principal verb of the predicate on the other; e.g., Caes., Bell. Gall., i., 9, Dumnorix gratia et largitione apud Sequanos plurimum poterat.

[ 788.] Note.-The verb, however, is often not placed at the end of a sentence, when either this is too long for the hearer to be kept in expectation of it, or when too many verbs would come together at the end. We should, therefore, not say, e. g., se incolumem esse non posse demonstrat, but rather se demonstrat incolumem esse non posse. But without either of these reasons the verb is placed earlier in the sentence in easy and familiar style; for the verb at the end of a sentence, for the purpose of closing it, is more suited to the oratorical and historical style, and, in general, shows meditation and design. Comp. a passage in a letter of Cicero to Lucceius (v.,* 12), which is written with great care, but purposely with the ease and frankness of a man of the world: genus enim scriptorum tuorum, etsi erat semper a me vehementer expectatum, tamen vicit opinionem meam, meque ita vel cepit vel incendit, ut cuperem quam celerrime res nostras monumentis commendari tuis. In a narrative it would be expressed thus: genus enim scriptorum Lucceii, etsi semper ab eo vehementer expectatum erat, tamen opinionem ejus ita vicit, ut quam celerrime res suas illius monumentis illustrari cuperet. The verb is placed at the very beginning of a proposition, even where no oratorical emphasis is aimed at in explanatory clauses, in which case a conjunction is generally added; e. g., amicum aegrotantem visere volebam: habi tat autem ille in parte urbis remotissima.

[§ 789.] 3. With this rule respecting the arrangement of words in ordinary statements of facts, we must connect another, that in sentences containing the expression of emotion or an independent judgment, the pathetic word is put at the beginning, or the most significant at the end. The pathetic word is that whose emphasis characterizes it as especially affecting the feelings or as forming a contrast. Innumerable instances show that it is placed first; e. g., Cicero, Cito arescit lacrima, praesertim in alienis malis; Sua vitia insipientes et suam culpam in senectutem conferunt; A malis mors abducit, non a bonis, verum si quaerimus; Insignia virtutis multi etiam sine virtute assecuti sunt. The other words of the proposition then follow in the usual order. If there be no pathetic word requiring prominence, or if the sentence with the verb being placed first is explanatory of the preceding one, the place at the end of the proposition is reserved for the significant word, that is, the word which is most strongly to be impressed upon our understanding or memory. This is especially frequent in Caesar; e. g., Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres; i., 6, quod ante id tempus acciderat nunquam; i., 7, quod aliud iter haberent nullum; but

also in other authors, and especially in the didatic style of Cicero; as, de Off., i., 2, Sequemur igitur hoc quidem tempore et in hac quaestione potissimum Stoicos; i., 8, Expetuntur autem divitiae quum ad usus vitae necessarios, tum ad perfruendas voluptates; de Leg., i., 32, quae virtus ex providendo est appellata prudentia.

Note. We have adopted the terms pathetic and significant from the work of Gehlius, Ratio ordinationis verborum, Hamburg, 1746, 4to. Compare especially the rules laid down by Quintilian, ix., 4, 26, foll., Verbo sensum claudere multo, si compositio patiatur, optimum est. In verbis enim sermonis vis. Saepe tamen est vehemens aliquis sensus in verbo, quod, si in media parte sententiae latet, transire intentionem et obscurari circumjacentibus solet, in clausula positum assignatur auditori et infigitur; quale illud est Ciceronis (Philip., ii., 25), Ut tibi necesse esset in conspectu populi Romani vomere postridie. Transfer hoc ultimum, minus valebit. Nam totius ductus hic est quasi mucro, ut per se foeda vomendi necessitas, jam nihil ultra expectantibus, hanc quoque adjiceret deformitatem, ut cibus teneri non posset postridie. But we should not deviate from the common form of a proposition without a special reason: he who aims at too much emphasis falls into affectation, the most unpleas ant fault in composition.

[§ 790.] 4. What is common to several objects either precedes or follows them, but is not put with one exclusively; hence we say, e. g., in scriptoribus legendis et imitandis, or in legendis imitandisque scriptoribus, not in legendis scriptoribus et imitandis; farther, hostes victoriae non omen modo, sed etiam gratulationem praeceperant ; quum respondere neque vellet neque posset; habentur et dicuntur tyranni; amicitiam nec usu nec ratione habent cognitam; philosophia Graecis et litteris et doctoribus percipi potest, and the like.

Note. In this point, too, the familiar style differs from the oratorical. In the former, words are very often subjoined, with a certain appearance of negligence, which, in a more strict arrangement, would have been in troduced earlier, and more closely united with the rest; e. g., the last sentence might have stood thus, philosophia et litteris Graecis percipi potest et doctoribus.

[§ 791.] 5. It is commonly laid down as a general rule that the dependent cases, and therefore especially the genitive, precede the governing nouns. This rule, however, may easily lead to mistakes, for it is arbitrary, and all depends on the idea which is to be expressed. Fratris tur mors acerbissima mihi fuit and mors fratris tui are both equally correct, according as the idea of the person or his death is to be more strongly impressed on the mind: mors fratris tui contrasts the death with the preceding life; and fratris tui mors describes this case of death as distinct from others that may occur. Hence we say, e. g., animi motus, animi morbus, corporis partes, terrae motus,

in this order, since the general term receives its specific meaning only from the genitive. A genitive, however, which expresses an objective relation (see § 423), usually follows the noun on which it depends. Thus we read in Cicero, pro Leg. Man., 3, quod is, qui uno die, tota Asia, tot in civitatibus, uno nuntio atque una significatione litterarum cives Romanos necandos trucidandosque denotavit, a notice "by letters," not una litterarum significatione; so, in Verr., i., 40, offensionem negligentiae vitare, an "offence by my negligence." When several genitives are dependent on one noun (compare § 423), the subjective genitive commonly precedes, and the objective genitive may either precede or follow the governing noun; e. g., Cic., in Caec., 6, cur eorum spem exiguam reliquarum fortunarum vi extorquere conaris? in Verr., i., 13, cognoscite hominis principium magistratuum gerendorum; p. Mur., 4, hominis amplissimi causam tanti periculi repudiare; de Re Publ., i., 28, Atheniensium populi potestatem omnium rerum, &c.; Cic., Brut., 44, Scaevolae dicendi elegantiam satis cognitam habemus; de Fin., i., 5, quod ista Platonis, Aristotelis, Theophrasti orationis ornamenta neglexit Epicurus; be cause dicendi elegantia, orationis ornamenta, in this order, express the idea which is to be set forth.

[792.] Note.-The genitive dependent on causă or gratia," on account of," always precedes these ablatives; gloriae causa mortem obire, emolumentı sui gratia aliquid hominibus detrahere. Exceptions are very rare in Cicero (Lael., 16, multa facimus causă amicorum); more common in Livy.

[§ 793.] 6. The Adjective, likewise, may be placed before or after its substantive; it is before its substantive when it is declarative of an essential difference of that substantive from others; it is placed after when it merely expresses an accessory or incidental quality. The natural accent will, in most cases, be a sufficient guide. Pliny calls his work Libri Naturalis Historiae, the idea of nature appearing to him of greater importance in characterizing the work than that of history; Theodosianus Codex is in the same way distinguished from other codices. It must be observed that a monosyllabic substantive almost invariably precedes a longer adjective; e. g., Di immortales, rex potentissimus et nobilissimus; especially with res: res innumerabiles, res incertissimae, res dissimillimae ; if the position were inverted, the impression would be unpleasant, and the shorter word would be lost. Other qualifying words (besides adjectives) which belong to the idea

of the noun, especially genitives and prepositions with their cases, are usually placed between the substantive and the adjective; e. g., amicitia usque ad extremum vitae diem permansit; tuorum erga me meritorum memoria. Such words as respublica, jusjurandum, which are combinations of a substantive and an adjective rather than compound words, are separated only by particles. Other words which do not belong to the substantive and adjective may be placed between them only for the sake of a special emphasis, which lies either on the substantive or on the adjective; e. g., magnum animo cepi dolorem ; ut cuperem quam celerrime res nostras monumentis commendari tuis.

[$794.] Note 1.-Other words may be introduced between a preposition and the case governed by it: this, however, is usually the case only with genitives or adverbs which are closely connected with the following noun or participle; e. g., Cicero, inter hostium tela; propter Hispanorum, apud quos consul fuerat, injurias; ad bene beateque vivendum. Conjunctions, also, in the connexion of clauses, are so interposed; e. g., post vero Sullae victoriam; praeter enim tres disciplinas. Other words very rarely and only in certain combinations; e. g., Cic., Brut., 12, in bella gerentibus, which expression has, in a certain measure, become one word; ibid., 22, in suum cuique tribuendo. We mention this in order to caution the student against saying, e. g., ad praesidiis firmanda moenia; in mihi invisum locum, or even ex a te laudato loco, the proper order being this, ad moenia praesidiis firmanda, in locum mihi invisum, ex loco a te laudato; or, ad firmanda praesidiis moenia, in invisum mihi locum, ex laudato a te loco.

It deserves to be noticed that the preposition per, "by," in adjurations, is usually separated from its case by the accusative of the person adjured; e. g., Terent., Andr., v., 1, 5, per ego te deos oro, and with the omission of oro, Cic., p. Planc., 42, Nolite, judices, per vos fortunas vestras, inimicis meis dare laetitiam; Sall., Jug., 14, Patres conscripti, per vos liberos atque parentes, subvenite misero mihi. Comp. § 773.

[$795.] Note 2.-The variation in the arrangement of words by the poets properly consists in too great and ungrammatical a separation of the adjective from the substantive; and, generally speaking, in putting together words from different parts of a proposition. We may illustrate this by an example; Cicero (Philip., v., 10) says bella civilia opinione plerumque et fama gubernantur. He intended to conclude thus, opinione plerumque gubernantur, but added (according to our remark in 790) et fama. This is very natural, and plerumque is an unemphatical word, which must be somewhere inserted. The arrangement still remains prosaic, if we say bella gubernantur civilia fama plerumque et opinione, for civilia follows soon enough after bella. But if we insert one word more, we have an entirely poetical diction, and by substituting another word for civilia, a complete verse, Bella gubernantur plerumque domestica fama. And it would likewise be poetical to say, bella fama et opinione civilia gubernantur, still more so, civilia fama et opinione bella gubernantur, and entirely lyric, civilia fama et plerumque bella opinione gubernantur, but all these and similar arrangements of words occur in the poets, and we might easily prove this by quotations, and analyze the different forms, were it not our object here only to show the point at which poetical license commences.

[§ 796.] 7. Names of honours or dignities, and every