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An attempt has been made to explain the presence of the vinegar by reference to the sour wine, ogos, which the soldiers would have with them. Pliny claims for vinegar the power of splitting rocks heated by fire, and no doubt had this story in his mind. Polybius says nothing on this head.

8. 160. Molliuntque, &c., 'they ease the steep descent by gentle gradients.'

9. Hannibal entered Italy with 20,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry; he must therefore have lost 33,000 men since leaving the Pyrenees, when he had 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry. He had left New Carthage in June; it was now late in September. He first subdued the Taurini who were engaged in the feud with his allies the Insubres, and then marched to meet Scipio, who had landed at Pisa, crossed the Po at Placentia, and was eager to engage before the Gauls declared absolutely for the invader. Both armies had pushed forward their cavalry to reconnoitre, and a skirmish took place on the banks of the Ticinus.

1. The Carthaginians had been encouraged by a proclamation of liberty to all the slaves who followed the army, and a promise to their masters of a double number of slaves when the foe was conquered.

4. Examen apum. This prodigy seems to have been especially connected with foreign invasion. Compare Virg. Æn. VII. 64, sq. where a swarm pitches on a bay-tree in the palace of Latinus, and the seer exclaims 'Externum cernimus adventare virum.'

5. Procuratis. A word frequently used by Livy in the sense of averting evil omens by sacrifice. The 'o' is short in Ovid and Tibullus; long in Virgil.

Compare proficiscor, profundo, procella, propago, propino.

14. Frenatos equites. These were the Spaniards 8,000 strong, the Numidians being 12,000.

21. It has been remarked that the Romans in almost every battle they lost were out-flanked by the enemy, their obstinate adherence to routine preventing the change of front and flexibility of movement which would have frustrated such attempts.

30. Protegens, the nom. of the pres. part. is used of a continuous, not of a single, action.

31. Cedendo, see Note at Ex. 7, line 2.

32. Cælius Antipater, an orator and jurist, lived about 100 years after the Second Punic War, of which he wrote the history. Livy speaks of him with respect; Cicero praises his style. He was the first to raise historical composition above the level of a mere chronicle of events.

34. It may be doubted whether 'fama' is nom. or abl. This neuter sense of 'obtineo' is not found in Cicero; the same may be said of 'teneo.'

10. After the skirmish at Ticinus, Scipio retreated, crossed the Po at Placentia, destroying his bridge of boats to prevent pursuit, and took up a strong position on the banks of the Trebia, having the river to protect his front, his

Ex. Line.

right wing resting on the spurs of the Apennines, his left on Placentia. Here he was joined by Sempronius, who took the command, as Scipio was still disabled by his wound. This rash officer was allured by Hannibal to abandon his position, cross the Trebia, swollen by winter rains, and attack the Carthaginians, who were drawn up to meet him. An ambush set by Hannibal during the night, near the banks of the river under the command of Mago, burst out on the Romans in the heat of the engagement and completed their discomfiture. The wreck of the army took refuge in Placentia and Cremona; Hannibal thus found himself master of Cisalpine Gaul, and was enabled to rest his troops in preparation for the next year's campaign. For a fuller account of the battle of the Trebia consult a Roman History.

10.

6

1. Dum, as long as.' 'Dum' is followed by the imperfect where the action is continuous; where the action is single, even in past time, the present is used.

4. Ligures. This people represents a very ancient tide of immigration, earlier even than the Celts, and probably akin to the Basques in Spain. They lived along the Riviera from Nice to Spezzia, besides occupying the western part of the plain of Lombardy. The Taurini (Turin) were a Ligurian tribe. Virgil speaks of them as hardy, 'assueti malo.' For another side of their character, see Æn. XI. 700, sq.

14. Deprensi, 'caught in the storm.' Compare Hor. Od. II. 16, 2.

16. Explicare, of the canvass.'

17. Statuere,' of the tent-poles.'

11. This chapter well illustrates the strong hold superstition had on the Roman character. Livy himself is evidently a sceptic: the long breathless list of prodigies here given seems almost intended to produce a ludicrous effect.

7. This apparition as well as that mentioned below of men near Amiternum were probably caused by a cloud-reflection, like the spectre of the Brocken.

12. Lapidibus pluvisse. These showers were probably meteoric. Humboldt has a fancy that the craters of the Alban district were not altogether quiescent, and that phenomena of this kind recorded by Roman writers were sometimes volcanic.

13. Sortes extenuatæ. These 'sortes' were a kind of dice or tablets with mystical figures inscribed on them, and drawn out usually by a boy, from a vessel of water, when an oracular answer was required. They were made of gold, wood, or other materials. The prodigy in this case consisted in the shrinking of these dice.

15. Decemviri sacris faciundis, in whose care were the Sibylline books.

18. Lustrata. Victims were taken in solemn procession round the city and sacrificed in the Campus Martius. This ceremony was performed regularly by the Censor every fifth year; hence the word 'lustrum,' signifying a period of five years.

Majores, full-grown.'

Ex. line.

11. 18. Dis quibus editum est, 'to the gods, indicated by the oracular books.' 21. Lectisternium, the images of the gods were placed on couches (pulvinaria, see Hor. Od. I. 37, 4,) round the altars, and sumptuous dishes set before them.

23. Fortunæ in Algido. Horace (Carm. Sæc.) mentions a temple of Diana on Algidus, a term including the north-eastern part of the Alban hills, and some remains exist on one of these peaks at the present day, representing probably one or other of these temples.

Juventuti, by the younger men,' as opposed to 'universo populo,' below. But some read Juventuti, in honour of youth.' Juventus was worshipped as a divine power. The Romans were fond of deifying abstract qualities, as Virtus, Pax, Fortuna, Concordia.

24. Nominatim, 'conducted by persons specially named.'

25. Genio, the tutelary deity of the city.'

26. Vota suscipere, 'to take on himself vows in the name of the people, to be paid, if,' &c.

12. 1. Consul, 'Servilius.'

Placandis Romæ dis. This refers to another series of prodigies of a still more alarming character; evil omens also had attended the election of the consul Flaminius, and an attempt was made to set aside his election, but in vain. He set out from Rome secretly, and reached his province, from which he refused to return. He was now at Arretium, a town commanding the passes of the Apennines leading from Cisalpine Gaul into the valley of the Tiber. pass by Ariminum was watched by the other consul, Cn. Servilius. This is the longer route, which Hannibal determined not to adopt.

The

13. Qua modo præirent duces, wherever their guides did but shew the way;' i. e. they had only to shew the way, and the men unhesitatingly followed. 25. Tantum--quærentibus, 'to those who only asked a spot above the water.'

26. Parvi temporis quietem, 'a few minutes rest.'

32. Capitur, This word is used both of physical and mental loss with 'pedibus,' 'auribus,'' mente.'

13. Hannibal having eluded Flaminius by marching through the Etruscan marshes advanced slowly, leaving his adversary in the rear, confident that Flaminius a kind of Roman Cleon, who owed his consulship to his democratic principles, despised routine and tradition, and fancied himself a great general, because he was not a red-tapist, would pursue and attack him, without waiting for the other consular army under Servilius. In order to understand the battle it must be borne in mind that on reaching the head of the lake the road, which had wound along its shores, leads up a steep pass fringed on each side by precipitous cliffs. Hannibal was encamped on the open ground at the head of the lake, probably at the point where it narrows and the ascent begins. The cliffs on each side were lined with Carthaginian troops, and as soon as the Romans were safely in the trap their return was barred by the African cavalry.

Ex. Line.

13. 4. Ubi maxime, 'just where.'

7. Campus, 'the open ground at the head of the lake.'

8. Ubi-consideret. The subjunctive is here used because 'ibi'in tali loco. He chose the ground with the especial object of deceiving the enemy as to his real numbers, and luring them on by the apparent smallness of his camp. 14. Inexplorato, without reconnoitering,' a kind of abl. absolute. Compare 'augurato.'

17. Deceptæ. This is so hard to explain, that 'decepere' has been proposed, but without much improvement to the sense: the sense required is 'fefellerunt,' 'latuerunt.'

ences.

22. Densior campo quam montibus.

24. Magis pariter, more simultaneously.'

25. Priusquam satis cerneret, 'before they could see distinctly.'

29. Ut in re trepida, cf. VIII. 64.

36. Præ, always has a preventive force and is only used in negative sent

39. Competeret, a late word; its original notion of falling together or making for the same point leads to the sense of fitness or suitableness, hence our word 'competent.' Translate, they had scarcely presence of mind.'

45. Avertebat. Convert the sentence and say 'were swept away by.'

46. Capti, 'attempted,' used with the same word by Livy, II. 45, and with 'conatus,' IX. 4.

50. Non illa ordinata, &c. 'Illa' is here in nearly the same sense as 'illa quidem,' ' not it is true the usual well-ordered fight.'

54. Ante aút post, 'in front, or in the rear.'

56. Eum motum terræ. This incident is mentioned in Childe Harold, IV. 63,'And such the storm of battle on this day,

'And such the frenzy, whose convulsion blinds
'To all save carnage, that beneath the fray,
'An earthquake reeled unheededly away.
'None felt stern nature rocking at his feet,

'And yawning forth a grave for those who lay

Upon their bucklers for a winding-sheet:

Such the absorbing hate, when warring nations meet.'

63. Senserat. The indicative here occurs in a frequentative sentence, according to the usual rule. Several cases of the subjunctive occur, VIII. 97, sq. 65. Insuber. Flaminius in his former consulship, B. C. 223, had conducted a successful campaign against the Insubrians.

Ducario. This dative is not invariable but far more common than the nom. or acc. with verbs of naming.

80. Capessere. This inf. is poetical.

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13. 80. Impello, is usually followed by 'ut,' cf. Virg. Æn. II. 519,— 'Quæ mens tam dira, miserrime conjux,

'Impulit his cingi telis.'

Quæ, sc. 'fuga.' Immensa, 'aimless,' they had no 'meta,' no point to swim to.

14. 15,000 Romans are said to have fallen at Trasimene: the Carthaginian loss was estimated at 1,500 the greater part being Gauls. The Romans expected an immediate march on Rome, but Hannibal, whose main object was to win the Italian races to his cause and who always sent back his Italian captives unharmed, marched across Italy to the Adriatic, and approached Samnium, where he hoped to find a discontented and warlike population ready to welcome him as their deliverer. But in this he was disappointed, and Fabius who had been appointed dictator in the emergency, confined himself to a defensive warfare, and avoided an engagement with so much skill and patience as to win for himself the title of 'Cunctator.' Hannibal marched across Italy to Campania, and then back again towards Apulia, dogged all the way by his watchful foe, by whom on one occasion he was nearly intercepted, and only escaped by the well-known stratagem of the oxen with blazing faggots on their horns. Hannibal on returning from Campania laden with spoil, which he had been allowed to collect with impunity, entrenched a camp at Gerunium on the borders between Apulia and Samnium, and commenced foraging in the neighbourhood. Minucius the master of the horse succeeded in the absence of the dictator in driving in his foraging parties, and the Roman people were so elated by his successes that they conferred on him a separate command, and so again at a critical moment divided their forces in the face of a watchful enemy. The dictatorship was always unpopular as a relic of the old oligarchical constitution, and one of the most influential men at Rome now was Terentius Varro, the consul of the following year. Fortunately for Rome, Fabius was above all petty jealousy, and saved his rival from annihilation, when he had nearly shared the fate of Flaminius.

omitted.

7. Non modo. The 'non' wanted to complete the sense is generally

28. Succedo, is followed by the acc. (with or without 'ad') or the dative. 50. Volventes orbem, 'forming a hollow circle.'

form a square.

Modern tacticians would

58. Allusion is made to the lines of Hesiod, Op. et D. 293, sq.

οὗτος μὲν πανάριστος, ὃς αὐταῷ πάντα νοήσῃ

φρασσάμενος τά κ ̓ ἔπειτα καὶ ἐς τέλος ἦσιν ἀμείνω.
ἐσθλὸς δ ̓ αὖ κἀκεῖνος, ὃς εὖ εἰπόντι πίθηται·

ὃς δέ κε μήτ' αὐτὸς νοέῃ, μήτ' ἄλλου ἀκούων

ἐν θυμῷ βάλληται, ὁ δ ̓ αὖτ ̓ ἀχρήϊος ἀνήρ.

Cic. pro Cluentio, c. 31, alludes to the same passage, 'Sapientissimum esse eum dicunt, cui quod opus sit, veniat in mentem, proxime accedere illum, qui 'alterius bene inventis obtemperet.'