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the force of its blow. Boiling pitch, melted lead, burnin arrows, beams and stones, were thrown upon the attackin troops.

When a breach had been made, a storming party protecte by the "shield tortoise" mounted it under cover of a heav artillery fire and tried to force its way through. If successfu and no further obstacles were encountered, the town and it inhabitants lay at the mercy of the victors, who usuall repaid the stubborn valor of the garrison with slaughter o slavery.

Engines of War. For their artillery the Romans wer 167 largely indebted to the Greeks. There were two kinds catapults (catapultae) and ballistas (ballistae), which wer probably used by Caesar, although he employs only the general term tormenta in speaking of artillery. All these engines were called tormenta because their propulsive power was derived from the the recoil of some twisted substance, 168 such as rope or hair. The catapults were huge bows which shot horizontally or at a slight elevation large arrows, sharpened beams, fire-darts, etc., a distance of from five hundred to one thousand feet. The ballistas were larger than the catapults and hurled at an angle of forty-five degrees stones and other missiles, weighing as much as six hundred 169 pounds, a distance of from eight hundred to twelve hundred feet. On account of their bulk, these engines were commonly used in siege operations only; but light field-pieces (scorpiōnēs, hand-catapults, carro-ballistae, ballistas mounted on wagons) were used in battle. The artillery was manned by the fabri.

Navy. There were two kinds of vessels in the Roman 170 navy, war-ships and transports. The former were distinguished from the latter by their greater length (nāvēs longae), or by the addition of a beak used in battle as a ram

(nāvēs rāstrātae). The prow (prōra) was gracefully curved, and ornamented with finely executed figure-heads; from it projected the beak (rōstrum). This was sometimes placed above, sometimes below the water-line. The tall stern (puppis) was adorned with a high fan-shaped ornament (āplustre), over which was displayed the ship's flag (vēxillum).

Each vessel had as a rule but one mast (mālus), one sail-yard 171 (antemna), and one large, square sail (vēlum). Oars, however, were the main dependence for propelling vessels; they were arranged in tiers or banks from one up to six in number. The average-sized warship (trirēmis) had three. The handles of the oars in the upper banks were weighted SO as to make them easier to use. The movements of the oars were regulated by a musical instrument, or by the taps of a gavel on a sounding-board. The rowers (rēmigēs) were slaves. On going into action they 172 were chained to the rowing benches, to prevent the possibility of their acting in concert with the enemy. The helmsman (gubernator) guided the ship by means of two broad steering-paddles attached to the sides near the stern. ship's anchors were made of iron and had one or two flukes. A certain class of vessels (nāvēs tēctae) had a complete deck; very commonly, however, only a fore deck and a hinder deck were found (nāvēs apertae).

The

For fighting purposes the warship was equipped with 173 grappling-hooks or cranes for seizing and lifting out of the water opposing vessels, movable bridges for the purpose of boarding them, wooden towers, tanks of oil, military engines, etc. These were placed on the fore deck. The fighting was done by marines, who were armed like legionary soldiers. The commander of a fleet was called praefectus classis, and had the rank of a lēgātus. The admiral's ship (navis

174

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praetoria) displayed as ensign the rēxillum purpureum by day and three lanterns by night.

The transports (nāvēs onerariae) were about one-half a long as the war-ships, and had much greater breadth of

beam.

Light, swift vessels used as despatch boats, etc., were called nāvēs āctuāriae. Boats used in scouting service were called

nāvēs speculātōriae.

of oars.

They had sails and a single bank

The Romans did not devise anything noteworthy in nava affairs, but borrowed largely from their more inventive neighbors.

II. GALLIC.

Military Service. The Gallic army was composed of all 176 the citizens in the tribe. No one excepting the Druids was exempt from service, age itself being no excuse. The levy was accomplished by calling an assembly of the tribe. Prompt attendance was secured by the custom of putting to death the last man to arrive at the place of meeting.

Equipment. The Celts of the early time were depicted 177 as a large race, with bodies more fleshy than sinewy.

Their dress consisted of close-fitting breeches (braccae), a tunic of various colors, a wooden cloak (sagum) worn like a Scotch plaid, and wooden-soled shoes. They were not so perfectly furnished with defensive armor as were the Romans. Coats of chain-mail and brazen helmets to which were attached horns symbolizing power, and figures in relief representing birds and animals, were worn by those who had 178 sufficient means. This armor they often threw away, and with a characteristic disregard of consequences, went into battle unprotected. The shield was about as tall as the

Roman scutum, but much narrower, while its brazen boss