A rather uncommon use of the infinitive as predicate after esse is seen in this passage: II. 9, 15 ea autem materies quemadmodum sit inventa est causa cognoscere. Putare in the sense of "intend" and taking a complementary infinitive stands once: II. 1, 8 cum corpus architecturae scriberem, primo volumine putavi quibus eruditionibus et disciplinis esset ornata exponere finireque terminationibus eius species et e quibus esset nata dicere. THE SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC POSITION OF WOMEN IN THE ARISTOPHANES. BY HERMAN W. HALEY. HE object of this paper is to collect the passages in Aristophanes which bear upon the social and domestic position of women (except hetaerae) and to state briefly some of the inferences which may be drawn from them. Statements of other authors and generally received opinions are referred to only incidentally. The more important passages are quoted at length; the others are merely cited. Meineke's text has been used for the extant plays; Kock's, in his "Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta," Vol. I., for the fragments. The testimony of Aristophanes as to the life and manners of his time must not be accepted without important allowances. We must constantly ask to what extent the poet was influenced by the wish to produce a comic effect. It should also be kept in mind that he wrote chiefly — if not exclusively—for a male public, and that his fertile imagination sometimes conceived scenes and situations which had only the semblance of reality. Yet his unhesitating frankness and freedom of expression make him an extremely valuable authority; and he abounds in incidental touches and "side-lights" in which there can be no intentional misrepresentation. POPULAR ESTIMATE OF WOMAN. This question must be treated with special caution. It would not be safe, perhaps, to infer that any single passage in Aristophanes embodies the common estimate of women, or even the poet's own opinion about them; but the consensus of a large number of passages shows conclusively that in the time of Aristophanes the popular estimate of woman was a low one. Women's Estimate of Themselves. Especially striking are the passages in which women are represented as depreciating their own sex. For example take Lys. 8-11: Λ. ἀλλ ̓ ὦ Καλονίκη κάομαι τὴν καρδίαν, Similar is Lys. 42-5 : τί δ ̓ ἂν γυναῖκες φρόνιμον ἐργασαίμεθα Cf. also Lys. 31; 137–9; 1124; Thesm. 371; 531−2. Doubtless in writing thus Aristophanes was influenced by the fact that he was composing for a male audience. Women in real life would probably not have spoken so disparagingly of themselves. But surely he would not have used such language unless they were actually inclined to put a low estimate on their own sex. A certain degree of verisimilitude is necessary to comic effect. Yet Aristophanes does not by any means represent women as altogether devoid of self-respect. The ladies in the Thesmophoriazusae (520 seqq.) show a very natural indignation after listening to the audacious speech of Mnesilochus, and afterwards make a very ingenious but somewhat whimsical defence of their sex (785 seqq.). Men's Estimate of Women. There are not a few passages which express, or imply in general terms, a low opinion of women on the part of the men. The best examples are Lys. 8–11, already quoted, and Thesm. 786 seqq.: καίτοι πᾶς τις τὸ γυναικεῖον φῦλον κακὰ πόλλ ̓ ἀγορεύει, Cf. Lys. 261; 1014-15; 1037-9; Thesm. 737-8. Less definite are Av. 1639; Eq. 1056–7; perhaps Nub. 691-2. Influence of Euripides. The plays of Euripides no doubt helped to form an unfavorable estimate of woman, though Aristophanes has much exaggerated their effect. In Thesm. 385 seqq. the severity of Euripides toward women and its supposed consequences are described at length. Cf. Ran. 1049-55; 1079-82; Lys. 283; 368-9; Thesm. 81-6; 378-9; 466-70; 544-8; 1160-70, and indeed the entire plot of the play. The Popular Estimate as exemplified in Aristophanes. We may also draw some inferences as to the general estimation in which women were held from the light in which they are represented by Aristophanes himself. His plays reflect the sentiments of the public for which he wrote as well as his own personal tastes and feelings. He would never have treated women with such severity if he had not been sure that he would please his audience by so doing. We find women frequently represented as fond of drink. Cf. Lys. 113-4; 195-239; 395; 465-6; Thesm. 347-8; 556-7; 630-1; 689-759, especially the amusing outburst at 735: ὦ θερμόταται γυναῖκες, ὦ ποτίσταται κἀκ παντὸς ὑμεῖς μηχανώμεναι πιεῖν. Add Eccl. 44-5; 132-46; 153-5; 227; 1118-22; Pl. 644-6; 737; 972. They are often spoken of or represented as licentious. Cf. Ach. 1058-60; Nub. 51-2; 1068–70; Pax 979–85; Av. 793-6; Lys. 23-5; 107-10; 125-147; 158-9; 212-5; 403-19; 705-60; Thesm. 340-5; 476-501; 558-9; Eccl. 7-10; 225; 228; 693-701; 877-1111; Pl. 959-1096. The passages where they use coarse language are exceedingly numerous. For instances of this, cf. Lys. 23-5; 59-60; 88-92; 107-10; 120 seqq.; 158-9; 227-32; 3623; 715 742-57; 771; 800; 825-8; 1112-21; Eccl. 256-7; 884937. For their practice of deceiving their husbands with supposititious children, cf. Thesm. 339-40; 407-9; 502-16; 564-5. They are also represented as accomplished liars and deceivers. Cf. Eccl. 237-8; 528-46; Thesm. 483-5; 558-9. For their superstition, cf. Lys. 63-4; Pl. 688-93; Thesm. 534. The fact that Aristophanes ventured to draw such a picture of the women of his time shows not only that their standard of morality was lower than that of the women of our day, but also that they were viewed harshly and unfavorably by men. WOMEN NOT THE EQUALS AND CONFIDANTES OF THEIR HUSBANDS. In the historic period the wife occupied a much lower position than in earlier times. She came to be regarded not as the peer and companion of her husband, but rather as the manager of his house 1 So Eupolis and Euripides: cf. Nub. 555; Thesm. 393. hold, respected, it is true, in her own separate sphere, but playing no important part in his personal life. Husband's Authority over the Wife. There are many passages in Aristophanes which illustrate the husband's authority over the wife. The best is Lys. 507-20, which is undoubtedly a picture from real life. The wife was obliged to bear in silence the misery caused by the war (verse 509); if she ventured to ask the simplest question about public matters, her husband roughly told her to hold her tongue (514-5); if she undertook to remonstrate with him about some unwise measure, he angrily bade her tend to her spinning or she would catch it (519-20). Strepsiades indeed seems to have been compelled to hint his wishes to his wife (Nub. 53-5); but, excepting such unusual cases, the husband might give his wife orders and expect to be obeyed. Cf. Ach. 262; Av. 665-6; Thesm. 790; Eccl. 335.1 Passages like Pax 1329-31; Av. 1759-61; Lys. 873; 877-8; 883; 899; 904; 924 et al.; Eccl. 562-3 and the like, furnish less definite evidence, although they are spoken by a husband to his wife. The husband could compel his wife to submit by physical force, sometimes by beating her. Cf. Lys. 160-2; 516; 519-20, and Frag. 10: οὐκ ἐτός, ὦ γυναῖκες, φλῶσιν ἑκάστοθ ̓ ἄνδρες. The fear of being divorced was also an incentive to obedience on the part of wives. Cf. Lys. 157. On the other hand, when a wife wished to gain an end from her husband, she either obtained it by flattery and little attentions (Vesp. 610-2; cf. Lys. 512), by making herself uncomfortable to him (Lys. 164–5; cf. Nub. 60-7), or by use of her personal attractions (Lys. 120-4; 149-54, cf. 46–8; 219–22; 551-4; 900-3; 931-2; 950-1, and indeed the whole plot of the play). Exceptions. Other evidence of the husband's authority will be given in other connections. But there are a few apparent exceptions which require examination. In Nub. 60-7 we have an account of a wife's quarrel with her husband over the naming of their child, which lasted until the matter was settled by a compromise; but this 1 Ach. 1003-6 are also in point if the yuvaîkes addressed are the wife and daughter of Dicaeopolis, as Merry supposes; but this is not proved. |