PART SECOND.

INTRODUCTION.

THE Exercises given in Part I. have been chosen chiefly to illustrate the constructions of Latin syntax, and the proper words and phrases have been given in a special Vocabulary. In those which are to follow, the student is expected to make the selection of words and phrases for himself, and must rely on his general knowledge of the language, or on a general Lexicon. An English-Latin lexicon should, however, be used only for the suggestion of words which do not occur to the mind from a knowledge of the language. The real guide should be the Latin Lexicon, in connection with passages cited in it, or else remembered.

A few points should be put clearly before the mind at starting.

I. CHOICE OF THE WORD OR PHRASE.

Single words, in all languages, commonly express not single ideas, but groups of ideas. They cover, as it were, not points, but surfaces. The surface thus covered by parallel words is very often quite different in different languages. Words do not coincide, but only partly overlap; and hardly any word in one language is exactly equivalent in meaning to the apparently corresponding word in another. Thus the English BOLD and BOLDNESS correspond most nearly to the Latin audax and audacia; but these often have an idea of blame, which is not in the English words: homo

audax is a man bad as well as bold. On the other hand, the verb TO LIE in English implies a moral offence, while the corresponding Latin mentior conveys no such opprobrium, though it may be conveyed by the context. The word LAW answers most nearly to lex, which, however, is limited to written or statute law; so that the abstract expression THE LAW (including common law) would have to be rendered by jura atque leges, or some similar phrase.

Besides this difference in the original meaning of words, their derived or figurative meanings are often very widely different. Thus the English noun FORM may mean things so different as shape (figura), manner (modus), vain show (simulatio), ceremony (ritus), a bench at school (scamnum), or a hare's bed (latibulum). The adjective RIGHT may be aequus (a right decision), aptus (a right selection), or dexter (on the right hand). The verb TO RAISE may be tollo, levo (to lift), augeo (as of wages), struo (of buildings), cieo, moveo (to raise pity, &c.), conscribo (of troops), colo (of grain and fruits). On the other hand, the Latin TOLLO may mean to lift, exalt, take away, weigh (anchor), destroy; SIGNUM is a mark or sign, signal, standard, statue, constellation; GRAVIS is heavy, weighty (dignified or influential), burdensome, offensive, sickly.

This difference is especially to be noted in the case of English words derived from Latin. The apparent likeness, in such cases, is one of the commonest sources of error. Usually the corresponding Latin words are much the more energetic and forcible, since they are the growth of roots still living and vigorous in the language. Thus the Latin LABOR is toil or hardship; DEPRIMERE ("depress"), to sink, as a ship in battle; OPPRIMERE (" oppress "), to overwhelm, or smother; SUPPRIMERE ("suppress"), to trample down. The judicious selection of a Latin term will thus frequently restore to life a dead or fated metaphor; while a vague or general term — such as is often given in English by a Latin derivative may require to be rendered in Latin by some qualifying phrase.

Hence, in translating into Latin,

a. Notice carefully the exact shade of meaning in which the English word is used, and see that the Latin word covers the ground. In securing this, it is often necessary to notice the other words in the sentence. Thus drown may often be rendered by submergere, because the rest of the sentence shows what is meant ; but if not, then the idea of death by drowning must be brought out by some explanatory word or phrase.

b. Observe the cases where Latin makes distinctions of meaning not recognized in English. Thus, CITY may be either urbs (a collection of streets, houses, &c.), oppidum (a fortified or garrison town), or civitas (a political community). An ENEMY may be inimicus (a personal enemy), or hostis (a public foe). GLORY may be either fama (reputation in common talk), decus (outward splendor or distinction), laus (the approval and praise of men), or gloria (the more general word).

c. In a far greater number of cases, English makes distinctions not recognized in Latin.* For example, society, participation, association, partnership, alliance, and several other words, are represented by the Latin SOCIETAS. If it is not clear from the context which is meant, some descriptive or limiting word must be added: as, societas generis humani, societas et communicatio, societas et foedus, and so on (see e, below).

cc. In general, the Latin prefers to make a person subject rather than a thing, a thing rather than an abstraction, so that an idea is often expressed in Latin from a point of view different from our own.

Thus,

Caesar stationed the auxiliaries . . . so that they might make a display, alarios constituit ut ad speciem

alariis uteretur.

So to serve for any thing may often be rendered by UTI, governing the noun which expresses the English subject (but compare Gr. § 233).

d. In many expressions we find an English phrase of two or more words rendered in Latin by a single term; as, a sense of duty, OFFICIUM; a feeling of shame, PUDOR; presence of mind, ANIMUS (alone, but also with praesens or praesentia).

* English employs, roughly, about five times as large a vocabulary as Latin, with a far smaller proportion of regular derivatives.

dd. As in all languages, there are in Latin many technical or semi-technical expressions, which must be carefully noticed. Such a word or phrase will often be suggested by some word in the English expression from the Latin equivalent of which it is often a regular derivative.

e. There are many words in English which have no natural equivalent whatever in Latin. These must be analyzed, and expressed by phrases; often substituting special and concrete words for general and abstract ones; and oftener putting the force of an adjective into a verb, or noun, or adverb. Thus,

1. Accomplice, scelerum (consiliorum) conscius. 2. Art, artes fingendi et pingendi.

3. Conscience, conscius animus.

4. Historian, rerum gestarum scriptor.

5. Inspiration, divinus quidam adflatus.

6. Lawgiver, qui leges ponit.

7. Panic, res trepida.

8. Patriotism, studium rei publicae, and the like. 9. Rhetoric, rhetorum praecepta.

(Stereotyped expressions, however, of this kind, should be avoided.)

f. Latin generally prefers to express in concrete terms what English gives in abstract (compare i). Thus, strength, vigor, energy, pungency, may be expressed by sanguis, lacerti, nervi, aculei; expression or sentiment by vox. So, too, the phrases,

1. I do not fear a bad man's anger, improbum iratum non metuo.

2. The assassination of Cæsar seemed to many a glorious act, occisus Caesar multis pulcherrimum facinus videbatur.

3. Every evil at its birth seems harmless, omne malum nascens innocuum videtur.

4. The world hates ingratitude, omnes immemorem beneficii oderunt.

5. There is a wide difference between learning and ignorance, plurimum interest inter doctum et rudem.

6. Firmness and dignity are characteristics of true courage, constantem et gravem eum esse volumus quem fortem dicimus.