which is solely attached to thesc, is still one and the same, whether ancient or modern, in England or in France. It is sophistry and not philosophy which is justly reprobated.-Knox-Spirit of Despotism. CCCXVII. Importance of Education.-All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind, have been convinced, that the fate of empires depends on the education of youth.Aristotle. CCCXVIII. First Principles of Government.-It must necessarily be understood, then, whether it be expressed or not, that all people live in society for their mutual advantage; so that the good and happiness of the members, that is, the majority of the members, of any state, is the great standard by which every thing relating to that state must finally be determined. And though it may be supposed that a body of people may be bound by a voluntary resignation of all their interests to a single person, or to a few, it can never be supposed that the resignation is obligatory on their posterity; because it is manifestly contrary to the good of the whole that it should be so. In treating of particular regulations in states, this principle must necessa rily obtrude itself; all arguments in favour of any law being always drawn from a consideration of its tendency to promote the public good. And the whole system of right to power, property, and every thing else in society, must be regulated by the same consideration: the decisive question, when any of these subjects are examined, being, what is it that the good of the community requires?-Dr. Priestley. CCCXIX. Of Property. If you should see a flock of pigeons in a field of corn; and if (instead of each picking where and what it liked, taking just as much as it wanted, and no more) you should see ninety-nine of them gathering all they got into a heap; reserving nothing for themselves but the chaff and the refuse; keeping this heap for one, and that the weakest, perhaps worst, pigeon of the flock; sitting round, and looking on, all the winter, whilst this one was devouring, throwing about, and wasting it; and if a pigeon, more hardy or hungry than the rest, touched a grain of the hoard, all the others instantly flying upon it, and tearing it to pieces;-if you should see this, you would see nothing more than what is every day practised and established among men. Among men, you see the ninety and nine toiling and scraping together a heap of superfluities for one (and this one too, often times, the feeblest and worst of the whole set-a child, a woman, a madman, or a fool,) getting nothing for themselves all the while, but a little of the coarsest of the provision which their own industry produces; looking quietly on, while they see the fruits of all their labour spent or spoiled; and if one of the number take or touch a particle of the hoard, the others joining against him, and hanging him for the theft. There must be some very important advantages to account for an institution, which, in the view of it above given, is so paradoxical and unnatural.—Paley. CCCXX. Conservatives.-Those whose importance and wealth arise from oppressive privileges, or the enjoyment of sinc cure offices, wish every abuse to remain sacred and untouched, and fear nothing so much as the diffusion of knowledge. They consider the exercise of reason as a curse to the lower classes of society, and philosophy and philosophers as the disturbers of mankind. They quote, in support of these assertions, the crimes of the French Revolution. Because the patriotism of many Frenchmen, at the beginning of the Revolution, to reform abuses, and to obtain a free constitution, has failed in success, is mankind never to make a similar attempt again? As the spirit of freedom in France has been perverted to the most wicked of purposes, is the spirit of passive obedience and slavish submission to be alone cherished in every country.-Dr. John Moore. CCCXXI. Ignorance the Cause of Man's Degradation.—It is a calumny against Providence, and a solecism in philosophy, to assert that there are nations so marked by tendencies to evil, so instinctively devoted to particular vices, that they remain irredeemable by good laws and wise institutions. Almost all civilized nations have assumed a different moral phasis according to the direction gradually given to them by political institutions. The heroes of Thermopyla in one age, have in another been the slaves of barbarians, and a monk now governs where a Cæsar trembled to assume the slightest insignia of power. The true instrument of man's degradation is his ignorance. It has been the fashion to accuse the Neapolitans of an inherent viciousness over which external circumstances could hold no control, but that prejudices has only obtained currency in European opinion since that country has been the slave of Spain; for conquered nations are al ways the subjects of slander to their foreign masters, who scek to sanction their own injustice, by assuming the worthlessness of their victims.-Lady Morgan's Italy. CCCXXII. Causes of Crime.-Notwithstanding the excessive rigour of our penal code, crime has not only not decreased, but has on the contrary increased in proportion to the denounced severity and consequent uncertainty of punishment. This, however, is but a secondary, though most influential cause. The primary springs are poverty, ignorance, and a demoralizing course of prison discipline. On the first point it may be sufficient to state, that at the present moment, the most moderate computation shows that one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the united kingdom, is subsisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution! One-fiftieth have no means of support but robbery, swindling, pick-pocketing, and every species of crime. Five-fifteenths of the people are, what are denominated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily, nay, hourly, reduced to the most heartless beggary. In North America pauperism is almost unknown; premeditated murder is alone capital, imprisonment for debt in several states is abolished; and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly rare. Whips, fetters, and dungeons, or halters, axes, and guillotines, are not the most efficacious means for raising the morality of a nation, or preventing outrages against person and property; and in proportion as a people become well instructed and comfortable, in SUCH RATIO will they become free from`crime, happy, and, morally speaking, innocent.-East India Magazine. CCCXXIII. Virtuous Men.-Man is made up of contrarieties. Inclined to friendship from the want he finds in himself of friends, he compassionates the sufferer, he relieves the necessitous, and finds complacency and satisfaction, whether his turn is to receive or confer an obligation. But as one and the same thing may be an object of desire to many, strife, enmity, and ill-will become thereby unavoidable; benevolence is extinguished by avarice and ambition, and envy fills the heart, which, till then, was all affection! but friendship can make its way, and surmount every obstacle, to unite the just and good; for virtue will teach these to be contented with their own possessions, how moderate soever, nay, infinitely prefer them to the empire of the world, if not to be had without hatred and contention. Assisted by this, they willingly endure the extreme of thirst and hunger, rather than injure or bear hard on any; nor can love itself, even when the most violent, transport them beyond the rules of decency and good order. They are so far from desiring to encroach on the rights of others, they are easily inclined to resign many of their own. If disputes arise, they are soon accommodated to the contentment of each party; anger never rises so high as to stand in need of repentance; nor can envy once find admission into the minds of those who live in a mutual communication of their goods, and plead a kind of right in whatever a friend possesses. Hence, therefore, we may be very sure that virtuous men will not oppose, but assist each other in discharge of the public offices. Socrates in Xenophon, |