claims upon his friendship. In Caesar he saw the greater and nobler man, but he feared his ambition. In Pompey he saw represented not the corrupt authority of a rotten aristocracy, as we see it to-day, but the republic and the constitution. Yet he feared Pompey's pride and resentment, if victorious, even more than Caesar's ambition. Influenced largely by his friends and by fear of public opinion, he finally went over to Pompey and joined him in Epirus. Soon after, the battle of Pharsalus was fought, and Caesar became lord of the Roman world.

VI. CICERO AND CAESAR (48–44 B.c.).

The cordial relations established between Caesar and Cicero while the former was in Gaul have been already mentioned. There was much in Caesar to attract Cicero. He was not merely a soldier, but a literary man of the first merit. His very camps were centers of culture, and many of his officers were men of literary ability. Caesar, in turn, greatly admired Cicero's genius and wit, and saw clearly the value of his friendship. The nobility and better classes had mostly gone over to Pompey, and he sorely needed a few men like Cicero to give tone to his party and pretensions.

After Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus, Cicero returned to Brundisium, the same city that had witnessed his triumphant return from exile, and there, for eleven wretched months, anxiously waited to hear the will of Caesar regarding himself. To make matters worse, his future was hopelessly involved in Pompey's disaster; his wife Terentia was making him much domestic trouble; his brother Quintus had quarreled with him; and his daughter Tullia, her father's joy and pride, had ruined her life by an unhappy marriage. This accumulation of misfortunes made these days the darkest of his life.

Caesar, after settling affairs abroad, returned to Italy in September, 47 B.C. He had by no means forgotten his old friend Cicero, and was more anxious than ever to win his support in the new policy which he hoped to establish. He therefore extended his generous clemency to him and a complete reconciliation followed.

Cicero had little heart left for politics, and at first shut himself up with his books in his villa at Tusculum. Many of his rhetorical and philosophical works were composed at this time. But soon Tusculum, with all its delights, began to grow dull to his active spirit. Again, Caesar's noble character and generous conduct in the management of the state made Cicero acquiesce more and more in the new order of things. Finally he returned to Rome, and soon found himself in his old place in the senate and society. Pompey, Cato, and other famous leaders of the republic were dead, and Cicero was its most illustrious survivor. He was never more popular or more courted than at this time. His intimacy with Caesar was such that he was about the only man that dared to speak to him freely. His talents were largely employed in the interest of friends who were still in exile and impatiently awaiting the Dictator's permission to return. Among these was Marcellus, for whose recall he eulogizes Caesar in the oration included in this volume.

In 45 B.C. Tullia, Cicero's daughter, died. This was a most cruel blow to her devoted father. She was the only one of his family of whose conduct he never complains, his consolation in all his troubles. In 46 his difficulties with Terentia had culminated in a divorce, and soon after he married a young woman of fortune, Publilia by name. She was jealous of Tullia's influence over her father, and was not sorry at her death. This offense was so unpardonable in his eyes that he at once parted from her, and would never see her again.

Tullia's untimely death only served to deepen the dissatisfaction in Cicero's heart, a feeling which had been growing for some time. Caesar was great, magnanimous, and kind; but there seemed no hope of a restoration of the republic, his dearest wish. He revered and admired Caesar personally, but he hated the monarch. His letters of regret became more and more bitter, and he was rapidly approaching that frame of mind which welcomed the tragedy of the Ides of March. Cicero did not belong to the conspiracy against Caesar, neither was he present at the murder; but he expresses the wish that he had been, and openly rejoiced in the deed. He and Brutus and the other nobler patriots expected that Caesar's death meant the instant return of the old republic with all its liberties and powers, and hence they made no plans for subsequent action. They did not realize that there were no more loyal Roman citizens of the old stamp, that all sentiment and patriotism were lost, and that the Roman people had become a mob, ready to offer the same plaudits to all victories and the same cruelty to all defeats, no matter what they represented.

VII. CICERO AND ANTONY (44-43 B.C.).

The materials at hand for composing a narrative of the last four or five months of Cicero's life are unfortunately scanty. His letters, our chief authority, fail us at this critical time, and the inferior authorities are often at variance.

Caesar's assassination had removed the despot, but not despotism. While the conspirators were inactive, Antony more and more usurped Caesar's place, and in such a shameless and autocratic manner that Cicero almost wished Caesar back again. Brutus and his followers were finally compelled to flee from Italy, and Cicero had seri

ous thoughts of going also, and, indeed, actually started, but was driven back by unfavorable winds. Brutus, however, showed Cicero a grander duty; to remain and make a last attempt to rouse the people and restore the republic. Cicero recognized in this advice the voice of his country, and from that time opposed Antony with heroic firmness

and

courage. There is no longer weakness or vacillation. He follows what he believes to be his duty unflinchingly, and makes the last months of his life the most glorious in his whole career. His fourteen orations against Antony, masterpieces of invective, are known as the Philippics, so called because worthy to be compared only with the orations that Demosthenes hurled

against King Philip of Macedon when he was threatening the liberties of Greece.

Cicero had a difficult, an almost impossible task. His Philippics, the first four of which he now delivered, were stirring up all Italy, but he had no soldiers to oppose the legions of Antony. Antony's principal rival for the chief power was young Octavian, Cæsar's nephew and heir, who appeared at Rome with a strong force of veterans soon after Caesar's death, to claim his inheritance. He was only twenty years of age, but as ambitious as Antony, and of that ability in statecraft which so distin

guished him later as the Emperor Augustus. After some vacillation, he announced his fealty to the party of the republic. Cicero joyfully welcomed his assistance and was thoroughly convinced of his loyalty. In the spring of 43 B.C. the consuls and Octavian marched against Antony, who was besieging Mutina, defeated him, and compelled him to flee across the Alps. On the evening

that the news of the victory reached Rome, the entire populace turned out to congratulate Cicero and do him. honor. This was the last triumph of Cicero and the republic.

Antony after his flight joined Lepidus, who had a large army in Gaul, and together they marched against Octavian, who had been elected consul and was proceeding against them. Instead of a battle, however, a reconcilia