although they had taken no part in the war or the arrangements for peace, also enjoyed many of the benefits accorded to those of Lombardy. If the Peace of Constance was a renunciation of those pretensions which Frederick had wasted a great portion of his life in defending, the Treaty of Augsburg, signed in October, 1184, was a diplomatic triumph which seemed of far greater importance to the control of Italy than the claims he abandoned. By this treaty a marriage was arranged between his son Henry - already chosen as his successor -and Constance, the heiress of the crown of Sicily. The Emperor seemed thus to have united all Italy under his dominion, and to have absorbed that power upon which the Papacy had so often relied to oppose the imperial supremacy. Having participated in the splendid fêtes by which this marriage was celebrated at Milan, on January 27, 1186, the Emperor was at last prepared, in 1189, to take part in the war against the Saracens. In the course of his journey, the venerable warrior, then in his seventieth year, was drowned in Cilicia, on June 10, 1190, in the swollen flood of a mountain stream. The mysterious character of his death invested the memory of Barbarossa with a halo of legend and ideality similar to that which the popular imagination had woven about the name of Charles the Great. The cruelty and perversity of his successor imparted to the last years of Frederick, by contrast with his noble generosity, the tradition of a veritable golden age. The legend sprang up that the great emperor, not dead, but only sleeping, would some day awake and come forth from the mountain fastnesses of Asia, to restore the glory of the Empire by a rule of law and justice. CHAP. VI A. D. 1125-1190 20 CHAP. VI A. D. 1125-1190 Documents Literature AUTHORITIES For the ecclesiastical documents of this chapter, the collections of Jaffé, Mansi, Theiner, Watterich, and Döberl are the most valuable. The contemporary chroniclers of the time are contained in Pertz, Mon. Germ. Hist. Of these the most important is Otto of Freisingen, the principal historian of Frederick Barbarossa, whose Chronicum and Gesta Friderici are included in Pertz, Scriptores, XX, together with the continuations. For the accounts given by John of Salisbury, see his Historia Pontificalis, in his complete works published by Giles, London, 1847-1848. The works of Bernard of Clairvaux have been published by Mabillon, Paris, 1690; and a selection has been reprinted by Lincy, in Documents inédits sur l'histoire de France, Paris, 1841. For the imperial acts, see the collections previously cited, particularly, Ficker, Forschungen zur Reichs- und Rechtsgeschichte Italiens, Innsbruck, 1868-1874; and Bernhardi, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reiches unter Lothar von Supplinburg, Leipzig, 1879. Romuald of Salerno, ambassador of the King of Sicily in the peace negotiations at Venice, has left in his chronicle the circumstantial account of an eye-witness and participant, found in Muratori, Scriptores, VII. Vignati, Storia diplomatica della Lega Lombarda, con XXV documenti inediti, Milan, 1866, is a useful supplement for the documentary history of the Lombard League. For the general history of the period, Sismondi, Histoire des républiques italiennes, Paris, 1818; and Cherrier, Histoire de la lutte des papes et des empereurs de la maison de Souabe, Paris, 1841, although prolix, are still worth consulting. La Farina, Storia d'Italia, Florence, 1854, vol. IV, is a popular history of the origin of the Italian republics. On the rise of the Italian communes, see Savigny, Geschichte des römischen Rechts im Mittelalter, Heidelberg, 1815-1831; Leo, Uber die Verfassung der freien Lombardischen Städte im Mittelalter, Rudolstadt, 1820; Bethmann-Hollweg, Ursprung der Lombardischen Städtefreiheit, Bonn, 1846; Hegel, Geschichte der Städteverfassung in Italien, Leipzig, 1847; Haulleville, Histoire des communes lombardes depuis leur origine jusqu'à la fin du XIIe siècle, Paris, 1858; Emiliani-Giridici, Storia dei comuni italiani, Florence, 1864–1866; Lanziani, Storia dei comuni italiani dalle origini al 1313, Milan, 1882; Heinemann, Zur Entstehung der Stadtverfassung in Italien, Leipzig, 1896. For the leading characters mentioned in the chapter, see Bernhardi, Lothar von Supplinburg, Leipzig, 1879; Morison, The Life and Times of St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, London, 1892; Guibal, Arnauld de Brescia et les Hohenstaufen, Paris, 1868; Clavel, Arnauld de Brescia et les romains du XIIe siècle, Paris, 1868; Guerzioni, Arnaldɔ da Brescia, CHAP. VI Milan, 1882; Reuter, Geschichte Alexanders III, Leipzig, 1860; Varrentrapp, Erzbischof Christian I von Mainz, Berlin, 1867. For the history of the Tuscan cities, see Capponi, Storia della republica di Firenze, Florence, 1875; Perrens, Histoire de Florence, Paris, 1877; and Villari, I primi due secoli della Storia di Firenze, Florence, 1893, translated into English by Linda Villari, London, 1901. On the relations of Genoa and Pisa, see Vincens, Histoire de la république de Gênes, Paris, 1842; and Langer, Politische Geschichte Genuas und Pisas im XII Jahrhundert, Leipzig, 1882, which treats of the diplomatic negotiations of these cities to secure commercial supremacy. For Venice, see Romanin, Storia documentata di Venezia, Venice, 18531860. For Rome, besides Gregorovius, Mariano, Roma nel medio evo: studi critico-storichi, Rome, 1873; and Villari, Il comune di Roma nel medio evo, Florence, 1891, reprinted from the Nuova Antologia of 1887. On the Lombard League and Congress of Venice, see Ulmus, Historia de Alexandri III Occulto Advento in Venetias, Venice, 1629, which unwarrantably attacks the authenticity of Romuald's account of the transactions of Alexander III at Venice; Voigt, Storia della Lega Lombarda e delle sue guerre contro il Barbarossa, Milan, 1848; Tosti, Storia della Lega Lombarda, Milan, 1860; and Balan, Storia della Lega Lombarda, Modena, 1876. The political aspect of the conflict between the Emperor and the communes is discussed by Kühne, Das Herrscherideal des Mittelalters und Kaiser Friedrich I, Leipzig, 1898; and R. W. and A. J. Carlyle, History of Mediaeval Political Theory in the West, London, 1903. A. D. 1125-1190 The revived passion for dominion CHAPTER VII THE DEVELOPMENT OF ITALIAN DIPLOMACY LTHOUGH historical events are the work of individual men, it is the general course of development which determines their aims and policies. The revival of the Roman law toward the close of the twelfth century profoundly affected the ambitions of that time and left a deep impression upon the century following. The most prominent idea engendered by this revival was the glory of the imperial past. On its political side, as we shall presently see, the first effect of this movement was to awaken universal aspirations for dominion. No one of the active forces of the time escaped from this fatal spell, and the characteristic of the age became its inability to accept natural and inevitable limitations. The final result of this general quest for power was the rude collision of all the interests thus brought into antagonism and a desperate conflict for supremacy. The Empire disregarded the pretensions of the Papacy and the Italian cities; the Papacy endeavored to dominate or supersede the Empire; while the cities conspired to throw off both imperial and papal control, at the same time endeavoring to conquer their neighbors and subject them to their will. The factional divisions of the cities, torn by the intrigues, treasons, and revenges of the Guelf and Ghibelline parties left them powerless to defend their general interests; and after their victory over the Empire they fell into the control of local despots, whose dictatorial authority became the last resort of public order. Animated by the same passion for power as that which drove the Empire and the Papacy to their ruin, the Italian despots, guided by a wiser policy, finally estab-| A. D. 1191-1300 lished a modus vivendi by creating through diplomacy an CHAP. VII equilibrium of interests almost equivalent to federation. It was only the appeal to the foreigner that destroyed this political system, so carefully built up by Italian statesmanship, which thereby became the teacher of all Europe. is the causes and conditions that led to this development of Italian diplomacy which now claim our attention. It a world-mon I. THE DOMINATION OF THE PAPACY UNDER INNOCENT III The alliance of Alexander III, the Lombard League, and The plans of the King of Sicily had frustrated the ambition of Frederick Henry VI for Barbarossa to subordinate the Papacy and impose unqualified archy imperial authority upon the Italian cities; but the purpose thus temporarily defeated became the absorbing passion of Frederick's son, Henry VI, who joined to the brilliant talents of his father a merciless and calculating cruelty that never hesitated to employ whatever means were necessary to the accomplishment of his ends. The merging of the Kingdom of Sicily in the Empire by the marriage of Henry with Constance, the dissensions of the Italian cities, the ability which Henry displayed in attaching Genoa and Pisa to his cause, and the helpless situation in which the Papacy was placed by the loss of its allies in Italy, combined to favor the accomplishment of Henry's bold designs. Having won the assent of the Romans by delivering to their vengeance the little city of Tusculum - always the object of their hatred-he easily obtained the imperial crown, on April 15, 1191, from the reluctant hand of the terrified pope, Celestine III, who beheld with dismay the triumphant progress of the new emperor toward the realization of the world-monarchy of which Frederick I had dreamed. Three obstacles stood in Henry's path: the opposition of Tancred, whom the Kingdom of Sicily had accepted as a national king; the alliance with Tancred of Richard Coeur de Lion, King of England; and the hostility of Henry of |