CHAPTER VIII.

GEOGRAPHY UNDER THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. THE VOYAGE OF PYTHEAS.

Intellectual Influence of this Period-Egypt under the Ptolemies--Position of Alexandria-Canal from the Red Sea to the Nile-Stations on the Red Sea-The Cinnamon Country (Somaliland)-The Upper Nile-Megasthenes in India, circ. 290 B.C.-Envoy to Chandragupta at PataliputraHis Work-Verified from Native Sources-His Knowledge of India— Its Boundaries-The Indus and Ganges-The Royal Road-The Rainy Season-Administration of the Country-The Caste-system-Life of the Indians The Brahmans-The Voyage of Pytheas, circ. 330 B.C.-Varying Estimates of him-His Work-Twofold Object of his Voyage-His Scientific Attainments-His Route to Britain-The Armorican Promontory (Brittany)-The British Tin Mines-Island of Ictis (St Michael's Mount)-His Account of Britain-Customs of the Inhabitants-Evidence in Favour of his Northern Voyage-Did Pytheas enter the Baltic?—The Northern Sea-Thule (probably Mainland in the Shetlands)—The Arctic Circle "Sleeping place of the Sun"-Pytheas' Parallels of Latitude— Wonders of the Arctic Regions--Comparison to the Pulmo Marinus-The Amber Coast-Testimony of Pliny and Diodorus-The Word 'glaesum.'

Intellectual Influence of

THE kingdom which Alexander left behind included territories in all the three continents, and within a short period after his death, during which a succession of struggles this Period. took place for the partition of his dominions, we find Hellenic culture disseminating itself in all of them. The spirit of enquiry, in particular, which was characteristic of the Greeks, spread rapidly and widely, and found an ample field on which to exercise itself in making new observations and discoveries. This result was promoted by the extended facilities of communication, which arose from the concentration of the government in the hands of powerful rulers at definite points, and the breaking down of the barriers of nationality and prejudice which previously existed. At the same time the vast amount of wealth that was thrown into circulation by the dispersal of the treasures of the kings of Persia, furnished the means by which encouragement

CHAP. VIII.] EGYPT UNDER THE PTOLEMIES.

145

Egypt under the Ptolemies.

might be afforded by munificent patrons, such as the Ptolemies and the Seleucidae, to men of learning, who were thus enabled to reduce to order the materials which rapidly poured in from various quarters, and to make them subservient to the purposes of science. From this point of view the moment was an auspicious one, because the methods of investigation which had recently been introduced by the philosophy of Aristotle were at hand to prevent the waste of labour which would have arisen from ill-directed speculation. But, while the spirit of research was abroad throughout the whole of this wide area, it was in Egypt that it found its most congenial home. The isolated position of that country, arising from the narrow isthmus through which alone it can be approached by land on its eastern side, caused it to be difficult to attack, and thus exempted it from the confusions which arose in the other parts of Alexander's empire owing to the contentions of rival sovereigns. The politic spirit of its rulers, who were indisposed for aggression, and anxious for the peaceful development of the land which had fallen to their lot, tended in the same direction. The three first of these, Ptolemy Soter, Ptolemy Philadelphus, and Ptolemy Euergetes, whose combined reigns extended over a century (323-222 B.C.), were also distinguished promoters of literature, and to them were due the foundation and endowment of the Alexandrian Museum and its famous library. That great institution, which became the most eminent university, or resort of learned men, that existed in antiquity, was of especial importance for geography, because it was the residence of Eratosthenes and others who were the foremost representatives of that study. The influence of those writers on scientific geography will be treated of in another chapter; for the present it may suffice to notice the additional information about countries hitherto imperfectly known which was obtained through the medium of Egypt under its early Greek rulers.

Position of Alexandria.

The newly established city of Alexandria contributed largely to the promotion of these discoveries. When its great founder selected this site for a metropolis of trade and communication, he perceived that it occupied the most central position that could be found in the

Canal from

ancient world in respect of the three continents; and at the same time its nearness to the isthmus of Suez opened out a wide prospect of increased traffic by sea, whenever the shores of the Indian ocean, both on the side of Asia and of Africa, should become accessible to commercial enterprise. It was built at the extremity of the Delta, just beyond the westernmost, or Canopic arm of the Nile, on a belt of sand which separated the lake Mareotis from the Mediterranean; and it was protected from the violence of the sea and the north wind by the long and narrow island of Pharos, which extended in front of it at the distance of about a mile. As a mercantile station it was greatly improved by the construction of the mole or Heptastadion-so called from its length of seven stades-which was carried across from the city to the island and connected them together. By means of this the harbour, which previously had been exposed to the full force of the north-east and south-west winds, was converted into two well sheltered and commodious ports. In the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus this rising emporium was brought into communication with the Red Sea by a canal joining the the Red Sea head of the gulf of Suez with the Nile, which had been commenced by Necho, and completed by Darius Hystaspis, but had fallen into decay, and was now repaired and made serviceable. The great importance of the Red Sea was now perceived, both for purposes of commerce and of discovery. In order still further to facilitate communication with it, and also to avoid the dangerous navigation of the narrow gulf at its head, stations were established and harbours formed considerably lower down, at Myos Hormos and Berenice, from which merchandise was carried across the desert to the city of Coptos, which was situated on the banks of the Nile somewhat below Thebes. After this it was discovered that elephants, the importance of which in warfare was beginning to be recognised, were bred in great numbers on the banks of the Astaboras (Atbara), the tributary of the Nile which joins that river on its eastern side below Meroë; and as this district was most easily reached from the Red Sea, the same king founded on the adjoining coast, to the southward of the modern Suakin, the town of Ptolemais Epitheras, with a view to the capture of those

to the Nile.

Stations on the Red Sea.

VIII.]

DISCOVERIES IN AFRICA.

147

The Cinna

animals, as its name implies. Having advanced thus far, he at last determined to obtain the command of this sea in its whole extent, and before the end of his reign-or at latest during that of his successor, Ptolemy Euergetes-several other settlements were planted in the neighbourhood of the straits of Bab-elMandeb, two of which were called Berenice and one Arsinoë. At this point the line of stations came to an end, but the Greek traders continued to advance as far as the easternmost point of Africa, Cape Guardafui, the territory in the neighbourhood of which, now Somaliland, was known as the Cinnamon country, on account of the abundance of mon Country (Somaliland). that valuable spice that was found there. Beyond that promontory they did not venture, nor does it appear that their voyages extended far along the opposite coast of Asia. No doubt at this period a large amount of Indian wares was imported into Egypt, but it is more probable that these were obtained by the Greeks through the ports of Southern Arabia than by any actual communication with India itself. At the same time, whether directly or indirectly, much information was collected in this way about these and other distant countries through the commercial connexions of Alexandria. The establishment of the Ptolemies in Egypt led also, as might be expected, to a more extended knowledge on the part of the Greeks of the upper course of the Nile. They then became acquainted with the two great branches of that stream, which are now called the Blue and White Nile, and of their junction at the point occupied by the modern Khartoum ; and they learnt the existence of the Sembritae still further to the south, whom we have already identified with the Automoli of Herodotus'.

The Upper Nile.

Megasthenes in India, circ.

290 B.C.

While the Greeks were in this manner becoming more familiar with the lands in the neighbourhood of Egypt, a remarkable addition was made to their knowledge in Further Asia. At the time of Alexander's invasion of India, there existed on the banks of the Ganges a powerful monarchy, that of the Prasians, which governed the whole of the area that was drained by that river as far as its mouth. 1 v. supra, p. 93.

Not long after this period, however, a revolution took place, in which an adventurous native chieftain, called Chandragupta (in Greek Sandrocottus), expelled the reigning dynasty, and obtained possession of the throne; and under his energetic rule the resources of the kingdom were greatly increased, and its boundaries extended towards the west. In this manner it came in contact with the dominions of Seleucus Nicator, who after Alexander's death, having fixed his capital at Babylon, maintained his rule over the whole of the eastern provinces of the newly-formed empire, including Bactria and India. It was inevitable that war should break out between these rival powers, and the result was that Seleucus found it expedient to cede to his opponent the whole of the Indus valley, and the neighbouring territories as far as the Paropamisus range, receiving in return a present of five hundred elephants. A durable peace was thus concluded between them, and in order to maintain the friendly relations which were

Envoy to Chandragupta at Pataliputra.

His Work.

now set on foot, an ambassador was sent by Seleucus to reside at the court of Chandragupta, who had fixed his capital at Pataliputra (in Greek Palibothra) on the Ganges. The agent who was selected for this office was Megasthenes (circ. 290 B.C.), an intelligent Greek, who made the best use of the facilities which his position furnished for the study of the country and its inhabitants. So unique was the opportunity, that the work which he wrote on the subject became the chief, and in most respects the sole, authority on India to the ancient world. Though his narrative has now perished, the most valuable part of the material contained in it has survived, being preserved in the second book of Diodorus, the fifteenth book of Strabo, and the Indica of Arrian. From these sources we learn what knowledge was in circulation in antiquity, not only about the geography and climate of India, but about the administration of the government, the character and mode of life of the people, and the religious system and its observances. The profound study of the ancient literature of that country, which is one of the highest glories of the present

Verified from Native Sources.

century, has opened out to us a wide field of information on the same subject, derived from the contemporary records of the Indians themselves.