root and the uninflected form of pes = ped-s, a foot;' but while the same ped- is the root, tri-pud-io- is the uninflected form of tri-pudiu-m = tri-pudio-m. An uninflected form is contained in every inflected word, and the variable terminations are appended to it; but it may appear also without an inflexion, and even without a characteristic vowel. Thus, tenero- is the uninflected form of tener, which has lost its termination -us in the nom. sing. masc.

(1) The declined parts of speech are,

6

a

(a) The noun, which is called substantive when it is the name a horse,' mensa, of a person or thing, as puer, a boy,' equus, a horse,' table;' and adjective when it is the name of a quality, as bonus, ' good,' celer, 'swift.'

(b) The pronoun, which indicates a position, and generally refers to some noun expressed or understood; as ille, that one there' (e. g. either puer or equus).

(c) The verb, which denotes an act; as discit, he learns,' currit, it runs.'

(d) The participle, which combines the meaning of a verb with the form of a noun; as discens, 'learning,' currens, 'running.'

(2) The undeclined parts of speech are,

(a) The adverb, which qualifies the verb; as discit bene, ‘he learns well,' currit celeriter, 'it runs swiftly.'

(b) The preposition, which defines the relation of a noun; as cum puero, 'with a boy,' ex equo, 'from a horse.'

(c) The conjunction, which joins words and sentences; as puer et equus, 'the boy and horse.'

(d) The interjection, which expresses an exclamation; as bone puer! O good boy!'

(3) The rules for the change of form in declinable words are arranged according to the division of letters into vowels and consonants, and according to the division of consonants into labials, gutturals, dentals, liquids, and semi-consonants, namely, according to the nature of the letter which terminates the crude or uninflected form of the declinable word.

CHAPTER II.

NOUNS.

§ 1. Declension of Substantives.

5 RULES of declension are rules for the formation of cases in particular nouns.

(1) There are six regular cases in the Latin noun, which are called the nominative, or case of naming,' the genitive, or case of sonship,' the dative, or case of 'giving,' the accusative, or case of 'accusing,' the vocative, or case of 'calling,' and the ablative, or case of removing.'

Obs. These names seem to be derived from the proceedings in a law-court; thus, the nominative, or case of 'naming,' 'names' the party, as Gaius accusat, 'Gaius accuses;' the genitive, or case of 'sonship,' says 'of whom' or 'what,' as accusatio furti, 'an accusation of theft,' filius Marci, 'son of Marcus;' the dative, or case of 'giving,' states 'to or for whom,' as mihi, 'to me; the accusative, or case of 'accusing,' indicates the person accused, or the object of the action, as Gaius accusat Lucium, 'Gaius accuses Lucius;' the vocative, or case of calling,' addresses a person, as judex, 'O judge;' and the ablative, or case of 'removal,' states the place from which or the person from whom an action or thing proceeds or is taken, as ablatum a me, 'taken from me;' factum a me, 'done by me.' But although the names of the cases admit of this explanation, their distinctive value is best given with reference to the English prepositions, which express their meaning. Thus omitting the nominative, which is never indicated by a preposition, the other cases are defined as follows: the genitive is expressed by 'of,' and denotes possession, as magistri liber, 'the book of the master,' or 'the master's book,' i. e. possessed by him; the dative is expressed by 'to' or 'for,' and denotes limitation, as datum magistro, 'given to or for the master,' i.e. limited to him; the accusative is expressed by 'unto' or 'towards,' or by this meaning contained in the verb on which it depends, and denotes motion towards an object, as venit Romam, he comes unto Rome;' accusat Lucium, 'he brings an accusation unto, in the direction of, against Lucius;' verberat servum, 'he beats, bestows a beating on, directs his blows unto or towards the slave;' the ablative is expressed

by 'from' or 'by,' and denotes motion from an object or agent, as venit Roma, he came from Rome;' verberatur a me, he is beaten by me,' i. e. 'receives a beating from me.' Besides these cases, some nouns, especially names of places, have a locative, or case of position, which in form corresponds to the G. in the sing. of vowel nouns, and to the Ab. in the sing. of consonant nouns, and in the plural of all nouns; thus we have Romae, at Rome;' domi, at home;' Carthagine, at Carthage;' Athenis, at Athens;' but, generally, this is superfluous, as the same meaning is expressed by the ablative with in, as in domo, in the house.' The nominative is called the direct case, and all the others are termed oblique cases.

(2) There are three genders,-masculine, feminine, and neuter; and two numbers, singular and plural, in most nouns.

Obs. The gender of a noun is known either by its meaning or by its form. The latter distinction depends upon the declension, and will be treated in its proper place. According to the meaning (a) the following nouns are generally masculine: names of Gods, men, male animals, and the inhabitants of different countries, as Jupiter, consul, taurus, Iberus; of mountains, rivers, winds and months, as Olympus, Tiberis, Boreas, September. (b) The following are generally feminine: names of Goddesses, women, female animals, countries, islands, cities, and plants, as Juno, virgo, vacca, Italia, Naxos, Pharsalia, salix. (c) The following are neuter: all indeclinable substantives, as fas, 'right;' nefas, 'wrong;' and all verbs, &c. used as substantives, as scire tuum nihil est, 'your knowing or knowledge is nothing;' because we supply in our thoughts 'the thing called right, wrong, knowing.' (d) The following are either masculine or feminine, and are called common: nouns which may denote indifferently either a male or female person or animal, as civis, 'a male or female citizen;' adolescens, 'a young man or woman;' testis, 'a witness;' parens, 'a parent;' bos, 'an ox or cow;' sus, 'a hog or sow,' &c.

(3) There are two great classes of Latin nouns,-vowel nouns in -a or -o, and consonant nouns. The semi-consonant nouns in -i and -u are properly appended to the latter class.

(4) The following rules apply to all declensions:

(a) The N. A. V. pl. end in -ă in all neuter nouns.

(b) The A. sing. ends in -m in all m. and f. nouns, and the A. pl. ends in -s in all but neuter nouns.

(c) The G. pl. ends in -um in all nouns.

(5) The following rules distinguish vowel nouns from consonant nouns of all kinds:

I. (a) Vowel nouns always form the G. pl. in -ā-rum or -ō-rum, which is rarely contracted into -um.

(b) They form their D. Ab. pl. in -is, which is rarely uncontracted in -bus.

(c) Their A. sing. is always -am or -um, and their A. pl. f. and m. -ās or -os.

(d) Their Ab. sing. is always -á or -ô.

II. (a) Consonant nouns generally omit r before -um in the G. pl.

(b) Conversely, they retain -bus in the D. Ab. pl.

(c) The A. sing. m. and f. is always -em or -im, the Ab. sing. is always -e or -i, and the A. pl. always -es in m. and f. nouns, except where the characteristic is u.

6 The characteristic letter of the declension may be always seen in the G. pl.; but when a-i is contracted into -ê, the G. pl. is ê-rum, thus forming a new characteristic. Accordingly, the following formula overrules all exceptions, and furnishes the criterion of the Latin declensions:

Declension-characters are those which come

In genitives before the -rum or -um.

§ 2. First or a Declension.

7 The first declension includes Latin nouns in -ă masculine and feminine, and Greek words in -ās or -ēs=-eas masculine and -ē feminine; as agricola, a husbandman;' musa, 'a muse;' Eneas and Anchises, the names of men; and crambe, a cabbage.' With regard to the gender of this declension, it is to be observed that all Latin -a nouns are feminine except (a) designations of men, as agricola, a husbandman;' scriba, 'a secretary;' nauta, a sailor;' conviva, a guest;' auriga, 'a chariot-driver;' incola, 'an inhabitant;' collega, 'a colleague;' advěna, 'a stranger;' &c.: (b) some names of rivers, as Sequana, Garumna, Cremera; but Allia, Matrona, and Albula are feminine: (c) Hadria, the name of the

Adriatic sea: (d) dama, a deer;' talpa, 'a mole,' which are of both genders, the latter being most frequently masculine.

Obs. In committing to memory the declension of a Latin noun, it may be advantageous to the learner that he should be taught to repeat the English of every case. One of the two following methods may be adopted, according as it is thought desirable or not to express the gender as well as the number and case of the inflexion:

G. pueri, of him-the boy

Masc. Plur.

pueri, they-the boys

puerorum, of them-the boys

D. puero, to or for him-the boy pueris, to or for them-the boys

A. puerum, him-the boy

V.

puer, O thou-the boy

Ab. puero, by or from him-the

boy

pueros, them-the boys

pueri, O you the boys

pueris, by or from them-the boys