(C) Tertiary, when the secondary predicate is used in an oblique case; thus in tu solus es, 'you are alone,' solus is a primary predicate; in tu solus adjuvisti nos, 'you alone have assisted us,' i. e. 'you have assisted us, and you are alone in that,' solus is a secondary predicate; but in te solum habemus, 'we have you alone,' i. e. 'we have you, and you are the only one whom we have,' solum is a tertiary predicate.

According to these definitions, (A) primary predicates are direct; (B) secondary predicates are oblique or adverbial; and (C) tertiary predicates are both oblique and adverbial: in other words, (A) primary predicates are either finite verbs including a copula, or the nominatives of nouns and participles predicated through a copula; (B) secondary predicates are either adverbs, nouns used adverbially, or the oblique cases of nouns with or without a preposition; (C) tertiary predicates are words in agreement with oblique cases of nouns.

§3. Accessory parts of a sentence.

123 In order to understand fully the application of the doctrine that there are three kinds of predicates, it is desirable to enumerate here all the accessory parts which can enter into a simple sentence in Latin, and also the most obvious of the subordinate sentences which serve as secondary predications.

A simple sentence may consist of the following parts in addition to the subject and primary predicate:

(1) The object or person addressed in the vocative case, which is merely interjectional.

(2) A verb in the infinitive mood, when the verb which contains the primary predicate does not convey a complete conception; as qui non vult intelligi non debet legi, 'he who is not willing to be understood, is not entitled to be read.'

(3) A noun or pronoun in the accusative case expressing the immediate object of a transitive verb; as manus manum lavat, '(one) hand washes (another) hand;' ego amo te, 'I love thee;' panem et aquam natura desiderat, 'nature requires bread and water.'

(4) A noun or pronoun in the dative case limiting the action to or for a particular object; as pater filio librum emit, 'the father

bought a book for his son;' dedi tibi pecuniam, 'I gave money to you;' non scholae, sed vitae discimus, 'we learn not for the school, but for life.'

(5) A noun in the ablative case, indicating the time, the means, or the instrument of the action; as hieme bella conquiescunt, 'wars rest in the winter;' concordia parvæ res crescunt, 'little things grow by means of concord;' Alexander Clitum gladio interfecit, ‘Alexander slew Clitus with (by the instrumentality of) a sword.'

(6) When the verb is changed from active to passive, the accusative of the immediate object may become the subject, and the subject of the active verb may be expressed by the ablative with ab; thus: Alexander vicit Darium, 'Alexander conquered Darius,' may be turned into Darius victus est ab Alexandro, 'Darius was conquered by Alexander.'

(7) Any noun, whether subject or object, may be defined by an adjective or adjectival word agreeing with it in case, gender, and number; as Alexander magnus fidelem Clitum gladio suo interfecit, the great Alexander slew the faithful Clitus with his own

sword.'

(8) The functions of the defining adjective may be repre

sented

(a) By another substantive in the genitive case; as amor patriae nobis insitus est, the love of our country is implanted in us,' where patriae, 'of our country,' defines the word amor just as an adjective would have done; maximum tui desiderium me tenet, 'the great love of you possesses me,' where tui might be written in the adjectival form tuum, 'thine.'

(b) By a relative sentence; as Alexander, qui tot populos vicerat, iræ succubuit, 'Alexander who had conquered so many nations, succumbed to passion,' where the relative sentence merely describes Alexander, as magnus had done, with a particular refer

ence.

(c) By an apposition of another noun in the same case; as Alexander, Macedonum rex, Alexander, the king of the Macedonians,' for which we might substitute a relative sentence, as qui fuit rex Macedonum, 'who was king of the Macedonians.'

(9) Any predicate or even epithet may be qualified by an adverb; as longe pessimum consilium, 'by far the worst counsel;' mens ejus est valde prava, 'his mind is very depraved;' equus cito currit, 'the horse runs swiftly.' Some adverbs, as those of affirming or denying, are construed rather with the whole sentence than with single predicates; such are sane, certo, fortasse, non, minime, nequaquam, neutiquam, &c.

(10) An adjective may take the place of an adverb and appear as a secondary or even tertiary predicate; as lupus gregibus nocturnus obambulat, 'the wolf prowls about the flocks at night;' where nocturnus is equivalent to noctu, and is therefore a secondary predicate; te solum habemus, 'we have thee alone,' where solum is equivalent to solummodo, dumtaxat, or some adverb of similar signification. But sometimes the sense is changed when the predicative adjective stands for the adverb; thus, Cicero primus hoc fecit, means 'Cicero was the first who did this,' i. e. 'he did it before all other men ;' but, Cicero primo hoc fecit, means 'Cicero first did this,' and he did other things after it; and, Cicero primum hoc fecit, means 'Cicero did this for the first time,' but he may have done it several times afterwards. Similarly we have, Thrasybulus non solum princeps, sed et solus initio bellum tyrannis indixit, 'Thrasybulus not only was the first, but also at the beginning was the only person who declared war against the tyrants.'

(11) A participle is regularly used as a secondary predicate, both in the same case with one of the ordinary members of the sentence, and in the ablative absolute; as omne malum nascens facile opprimitur, inveteratum plerumque fit robustius, 'every evil, when still growing, is easily kept down; but when it has grown old it generally becomes stronger;' Horatius, occisis tribus Curiatiis, et duobus amissis fratribus, domum se victor recepit, 'Horatius, the three Curiatii having been killed, and his three brothers having been lost, betook himself home as victor.'

(12) As the Latin language has no past participle of the active voice, unless the verb is deponent in form, a secondary predication of time in this tense, is either expressed in the ablative absolute, as in the example just given, or it is expressed by quum and the pluperfect subjunctive; as quum haec dixisset, hostes adortus est, ‘having said these things he attacked the enemy.' Similarly

contemporary time may be expressed by quum with the imperfect subjunctive; as Cæsar, quum iterum esset consul, multas res gessit, 'Cæsar being consul for the second time, performed many exploits.'

(13) A mere apposition of the same case is sometimes equivalent to a secondary predication of contemporary time, and in that case we may use the adverb of time by the side of the noun in apposition; as Cæsar iterum consul, Cæsar being consul for the second time;' Appius tum decemvir, 'Appius being at that time decemvir.'

(14) A word or phrase dependent on a preposition may serve to qualify an epithet or secondary predicate, or may constitute an additional predication; as amor in me tuus, 'your love towards me;' Augustus erga omnes benignus in multorum reprehensionem incurrit, 'Augustus, being kind to all, fell under the censure of many;' pro patria quodvis periculum adeas oportet, 'you ought to encounter any danger on behalf of your native country.' In the first of these passages in me qualifies the epithet tuus; in the second, erga omnes qualifies the secondary predicate benignus, and in multorum reprehensionem incurrit constitutes the main statement or primary predication, 'he was blamed by many;' and in the third example, pro patria is equivalent to a secondary predication of the condition, namely, 'if our country is at stake.'

(15) The substitution of a sentence dependent on a relative. or conjunction, for an epithet (8, (b)) or secondary predicate (12), may be carried to any extent, and the rules for the application of this machinery are called the doctrine of co-ordinate and subordinate sentences.

§ 4. Epithets and Predicates.

124 It is of the utmost consequence that a predicate should be distinguished from an epithet, and for this we give the following rule: An adjective, or oblique case, or relative sentence, if dependent merely on a noun, is an epithet or description; if dependent also on a verb, it is a secondary or tertiary predicate, according as its case is direct or oblique. Thus, Gaius is merely described, or we have merely epithets, attributes, or appositions, when we add to this name such phrases as bonus puer, 'a good

boy;' Marci filius, 'the son of Marcus;' qui est bonus, 'who is good;' qui est Marci filius, 'who is the son of Marcus.'

125 That all adjectives, oblique cases, and relative sentences dependent on verbs are subsidiary or accessory predicates, i. e. adverbs, may be shown by a few examples. We have seen this in the example pii orant taciti, 'the pious pray in silence,' i. e. 'silently.' The meaning of this would not be altered if we wrote in silentio, or silenter, or tacito ore, which are adverbial phrases, or ita orant, ut taciti sint, which is a relative sentence dependent on orant, and of the nature called illative. In fact, the only difference between an undeclinable adverb, and the other forms of secondary and tertiary predication, consists in the fact, that the adverb is general, while the others denote special affections. Thus if we say, habitabat ibi, 'he dwelt there,' we do not specify the place; but if we say, habitabat Romae, 'he dwelt at Rome,' we state where he lived. Again, if we say, 'he beat him violently,' we merely express the manner; but if we say, 'he beat him with a stick,' or 'so as to kill him,' we add the instrument and the extent or consequences. Again, if we say, 'he will go to London conditionally,' it is a general predication of condition, but not more adverbial than the specific condition in 'he will go to London, if you will accompany him,' i. e. ' on the particular condition that you accompany him.'

§ 5. Cases and Prepositions.

126 The general meanings of the cases have been given above, 5 (1); and we may now add that the nominative or direct case is subjective, but the oblique cases are objective. Regarded as adverbial words or secondary predicates, the oblique cases ought to denote 'motion from,' 'rest at,' and 'motion to,' an object. This distinction is accurately observed only in the nouns mentioned below (128, vII. (b)). All others express motion from by some preposition signifying 'from' or 'out of' prefixed to the ablative; motion to, by some preposition signifying 'to' or 'towards,' with the accusative; and rest at, by some preposition signifying 'in,' 'upon,' 'before,' or 'in presence of,' with the ablative; or by some preposition signifying 'at,' 'before,' 'behind,' 'besides,' &c., with the accusative.