circumstances; bis in hora, twice in the hour,' for the preposition must be used when the question is 'how often in a given time?'

Obs. 2 That the ablative in these usages, as in the adverbial phrases mane, noctu, hodie, pridie, postridie, perendie, &c. is a corrupted form of the locative is clear not only from the case of the adjective involved in meridie (medii die), quotidie, &c., but also from the expressions die septimi, die noni, die proximi, die crastini, which actually occur (Varron. p. 327).

Obs. 3 In counting the date from the foundation of Rome we either say anno ab urbe condita, or anno post urbem conditam, or anno urbis, or anno (e. g. trecentesimo altero) quam condita Roma erat.

(b) In answer to the question how long?' the noun expressing the time is used in the accusative; thus,

Augustus non amplius, quum plurimum, quam septem horas dormiebat, Augustus did not sleep more, when he slept most, than for seven hours.'

Pericles quadraginta annos praefuit Athenis, 'Pericles ruled at Athens (through, during) forty years.'

Improborum animi sollicitudinibus noctes atque dies exceduntur, 'the minds of the wicked are eaten up with anxieties by night and day' (i. e. all through the night and day).

Obs. 1 The use of the ablative to express duration of time is rare in the best authors, though it is occasionally found, as tota aestate Nilus Egyptum obrutam oppletamque tenet (Cic. N. D. 11. 52); pugnatum est continenter horis quinque (Cæs. B. C. i. 46); nocte pluit tota, redeunt spectacula mane (in a line attributed to Virgil). But this is not uncommon in the later writers, as octoginta annis vixit (Seneca, Ep. 93); Caligula vixit annis undetriginta, imperavit triennio et decem mensibus, diebusque octo (Sueton. Calig. 59).

Obs. 2 The preposition per is often used to express duration of time; per annos quattuor et viginti primo Punico bello classibus certatum est cum Poenis.

Obs. 3 In answer to the question 'since when?' we may have either the accusative alone, or the accusative with intra, as Lacedaemonii septingentos jam annos amplius nunquam mutatis moribus vivunt; invicti Germani qui intra annos quattuordecim tectum non subierint.

Obs. 4 In answer to the question within how long a period of future time?' we have either the ablative alone or intra, with the accusative; as Clodius respondit, triduo Milonem, ad summum quadriduo periturum; intra vicesimum diem dictatura se abdicavit.

Obs. 5 In answer to the question, 'how long a time previously?' we have ante with the accusative; abhinc with the accusative or abla

tive; or the ablative with hic or ille; as ante annum et quattuor menses; Demosthenes qui abhinc annos prope trecentos fuit; comitia jam abhinc triginta diebus erant habita; his annis quadringentis Romae rex fuit; ante hos annos quadringentos regnabat; respondit, se paucis illis diebus argentum misisse Lilybaeum.

Obs. 6 In answer to the question 'how long?' either before or since, we have the ablative with ante or post used adverbially; as paucis ante diebus, multis annis post or post annis.

Obs. 7 In answer to the question, 'for how long a time?' we have the accusative with in; as Sardianis Tiberius, quantum aerario aut fisco pendebant, in quinquennium remisit.

(c) In answer to the question 'how old?' the noun expressing the age is used in the accusative with the participle natus, or in the ablative or genitive with the comparatives major, minor; as

Decessit Alexander mensem unum, annos tres et triginta natus, 'Alexander died, aged thirty-three years and one month.'

Julius Caesar sanxit, ne quis civis major annis viginti, minorve quadraginta, plus triennio continuo Italia abesset, 'Julius Cæsar decreed that no citizen older than twenty or younger than forty years should be absent from Italy for two years together.'

Cautum est Pompeia lege ne quis capiat magistratum minor triginta annorum, 'it was laid down in the Pompeian law that no one should hold an office who was younger than thirty years.'

Obs. The age of a man may be expressed by the genitive alone, as Cato primum stipendium meruit annorum decem septemque, Cato served his first campaign when seventeen years old.' We may also use the ordinal in such phrases as annum aetatis agebat vicesimum, 'he was in the twentieth year of his age.'

§ 9. The Cases when construed with Prepositions.

169 The general meanings and distinctions of the prepositions have been already stated (above 109), and the general rules for the cases which they govern have been given in memorial lines (above 127). It remains, however, that their usage as supplements to the cases should be properly classified and illustrated by examples. It will be observed that, though several of the prepositions denote rest in a place, the dative or locative, as the proper case of rest, is never used with a preposition in classical Latin, but this usage has been usurped by the ablative, which, as we have seen, appears as a corruption of the locative. There are traces in some inscriptions of the use of cum with a form quem or quen, which seems

to be a locative analogous to palam, partim, saltim and the like (cf. quon-dam = quo-dam tempore, olim, &c.), and coram = co-ore may be another example of the same usage; but in ordinary Latin the regular prepositions are used only with the accusative, the ablative, or both of these cases; and the few other particles, which seem to serve as prepositions and govern the genitive or ablative, must be regarded as words which have not quite lost their original value as nouns, and which take the genitive of possession (above 148, Obs. 1), or the ablative of reference (162, (d)). These quasiprepositions are the following:

(a) Palam openly before, in the presence of,' takes the ablative; as

Centurio rem creditori palam populo solvit, 'the centurion paid the debt to his creditor openly before the people.'

(B) Clam, without the knowledge of,' generally takes the ablative; as

Clam uxore mea et filia, 'without the knowledge of my wife and daughter.'

In the comedians clam takes also the genitive, dative, and accusative, and the accusative is construed with the synonym clanculum.

(y) Procul, 'far from,' takes the ablative; as fusis Tuscis, haud procul Ticino flumine, 'the Tuscans having been routed not far from the river Ticinus.'

(8) Simul, together with,' takes the ablative; as pontifices et augures septemviris simul et sodalibus Augustalibus, 'the pontifices and augurs together with the seven commissioners and the board of Augustales.'

(e) Coram, 'in the presence of,' takes the ablative; as cantabit vacuus coram latrone viator, 'the traveller, if he has no money in his pocket, will sing in the presence of the robber.'

(5) Tenus, as far as, up or down to,' takes the ablative singular, but the genitive, or more rarely the ablative, plural, and always follows its case; as capulo tenus, 'up to the hilt,' crurum tenus, 'down to the legs.'

(n) Instar,' after the likeness of,' ergo, 'on account of,' gratia, 'for the sake of,' are followed by the genitive like the Greek Sixnv,

eveka, and xápiv, to which they correspond; as instar montis equus, ' a horse like a mountain,' (opous Sixηv); donatur virtutis ergo, 'he is rewarded on account of his virtue,' (åperîs éveka); majorum dolorum effugiendorum gratia, 'for the sake of avoiding greater evils,” (ἀποφυγῆς χάριν).

The regular prepositions will be most conveniently discussed in alphabetical order, and in three classes according as they are construed (A) with the accusative only; (B) with the ablative only; (C) with the accusative and ablative.

(A) Prepositions construed with the Accusative only.

AD signifies (1) 'to' of motion or destination; as Antonius legiones quattuor ad urbem (to the city) adducere cogitabat. Cic. ad div. XII. 23.

Litteras dare ad aliquem, (to be taken to him; as Fortasse discedens ad te aliquid dabo. Cic. Att. x. 8 fin.). Eamus ad me, 'let us go to me,' i. e. to my house. Ter. Eun. III. 5. 64.

(2) 'to' or 'towards' of direction; as Pars Galliae vergit ad Septentriones (towards the north). Cæsar, B. G. 1. 1.

(3) towards' of time; as Quum magnam partem noctis vigilassem, ad lucem (towards morning) arcte et graviter dormire coepi. Cic. ad div. 1. 28. Nos hic te ad mensem Januarium (towards January, by or about that time) exspectamus. Cic. Att. 1. 3.

(4) 'at' or 'near;' as Fatum fuit exercitum populi Romani ad lacum Trasimenum (at or near the lake) interire. Cic. ad div. 11. 8.

(5) 'with' (in the house of), or 'before' (in the presence of), in much the same sense as apud; as Curio fuit ad me (with me) sane diu. Cic. Att. x. 10. Patrum superbiam ad plebem (before the people) criminatus maxime in consulare imperium invehebatur. Liv. III. 9.

(6) 'at,' in the sense of habitual employment; as Servos ad remum (slaves employed at the oar) cum stipendio nostro dabamus. Liv. xxxiv. 6.

(7) 'at,' of an occurrence or its announcement; as Feminam ferunt ad primum conspectum redeuntis filii (at the first sight of her returning son, i. e. when she saw him) gaudio nimio exanimatam. Liv. XXII. 7. Ad famam obsidionis (at the news of the

blockade, when it was announced) delectus haberi coeptus est. Liv.

IX. 7.

(8) 'to the number or amount of,' in an estimate; as Manlius protulit spolia hostium caesorum ad triginta (to the number of thirty), dona imperatorum ad quadraginta (to the number of forty). Liv. VI. 20.

(9) in strict accordance with,' in giving a standard of measurement; as Ad perpendiculum (by the plummet, in strict accordance with the vertical line) columnas exigere. Cic. Verr. I. 51. Obsides ad numerum (in strict accordance with the prescribed number) frumentaque miserunt. Cæs. B. G. v. 20. Britannis utuntur taleis ferreis ad certum pondus (in accordance with a certain weight) examinatis. Cæs. B. G. v. 12. To this use belongs the phrase ad fistulam saltare, 'to dance to (in strict accordance with) the notes of the flute;' ad amussim, 'in strict measurement;' also ad verbum, 'word for word,'' word measured against word'—in accordance with the standard of verbal accuracy; as Est ad verbum ediscendus (to be learned word for word) libellus. Cic. Acad. IV. 44. Fabellas Latinas ad verbum (word for word) de Graecis expressas non inviti legunt. Cic. Fin. 1. 2.

(10) 'in comparison with;' as Laelium Decimum cognovimus virum bonum et non illitteratum, sed nihil ad Persium (nothing in comparison with Persius). Cic. de Orat. II. 6.

(11) with reference to,' 'as to,' 'in point of: Faciam id quod est ad severitatem (in point of) lenius, ad communem utilitatem (with reference to) utilius. Cic. Cat. I. 5.

(12) 'in addition to,' 'besides :' Ad reliquos labores (in addition to my other labours) etiam hanc molestiam assumo. Cic. Planc. I. So also ad id quod; ad hoc, &c.

(13) 'for,' 'on account of, 'with a view to;' as Argentum dabitus ei ad nuptias (for, with a view to the marriage). Ter. Heaut. IV. 5, 29. This is particularly common with gerunds and gerundives (below, 186, 190).

(14) for the purpose of meeting or averting,' 'against;' as Mirari licet, quae sint animadversa a medicis herbarum genera ad morsus bestiarum (as a remedy against), ad oculorum morbos, ad vulnera.