(b) With the ablative, 'beneath,' with an implication of rest; as Virtus omnia, quae cadere in hominem possunt, subter se (beneath itself) habet. Cic. Tusc. v. 1.

SUPER denotes motion above' with the accusative, and 'rest above' with the ablative.

(a) With the accusative super signifies (1) 'motion above,' of place; as Demetrius super terrae tumulum (on the top of the mound of earth) noluit quid statui, nisi columellam, tribus cubitis ne altiorem. Cic. Leg. II. 26.

(2) 'over,' in the sense of during; as Vespasianus super coenam (over his supper, during that meal) multa joco transigebat. Sueton. Vesp. 22.

(3) 'beyond,' 'besides,' 'in addition;' as In Bruttiis Punicum exercitum super morbum (in addition to the pestilence) etiam fames adfecit. Liv. XXVIII. 46.

(b) With the ablative super signifies (1) 'rest above,' of place; as Destrictus ensis cui super impia cervice pendet (hangs above his impious neck). Horace, 3 Carm. I. 17.

(2) 'about,' 'concerning;' as Hac super re (about this matter) scribam ad te Rhegii. Cic. Att. XVI. 6.

CHAPTER III.

TENSES AND MOODS OF VERBS.

§ 1. Construction of the Tenses in the Finite Moods.

170 A COMPLETE system of tenses includes three pairs of verb-forms. For a predication of tense must refer either to the time of speaking, which does not need definition, or to some other point of time, which has to be defined. In the former case, the tense is called definite or determinate; in the latter, indefinite or indeterminate. Now, besides this, every predication of tense must express either simultaneity, i. e. at the same time, or at the present; posteriority, i. e. afterwards, or in the future; or anteriority, i. e. before, or in the past. According to this view of the matter, which is fully established by the Greek language (see Complete Greek Grammar, articles 422 and following), the Latin system of tenses is defective. For the perfect has to serve both as the definite tense of anteriority, and as the indefinite tense of posteriority. Thus we have:

Definite Tenses.

Simultaneity: scribo, 'I am writing'-at the present time. Posteriority scribam, 'I shall write'-after the present time. Anteriority: scripsi, 'I have written'-before the present time.

Indefinite Tenses.

Simultaneity: scribebam, 'I was writing'-at a given time.
Posteriority: scripsi, 'I wrote'—after a given time.

Anteriority: scripseram, 'I had written'—before a given time.

Moreover, as we have seen, in all cases where there is no future in -bo, the tense used for the expression of definite posteriority is really the present subjunctive, and denotes, as will be shown directly, rather probability than futurity.

Obs. Although the reduplicated form corresponds to the true preterite in Greek, which is also involved in the compound preterite with fui appended, whereas the perfect in -si answers to the Greek aorist in -oa, there is practically no difference in the syntactical usage of these forms, and their absolute identity is farther developed in the sameness of their person-endings, which is probably a subsequent accommodation. Nor is there any difference in use between the two forms of the future.

(A) Indicative and Imperative.

171 (a) As the imperative differs from the present indicative only in a weakening or extension of the person-endings, we may consider the two moods together as far as their tenses are concerned. The following examples will show the usage of the tenses in the indicative mood.

I. Present: Deus mundum conservat, 'God preserves (i. e. iş still continuing to preserve) the world.'

Jamdudum ausculto, 'I am all this while continuing to listen,' i. e. I have long been doing so.

Zeno aliter judicat, 'Zeno determines otherwise,' i. e. in an extant record of his sentiments, or in a passage now before us.

II. Imperfect: Socrates dicebat (or dicere solebat) omnes in eo quod scirent satis esse eloquentes, Socrates was saying or used to say (at a specified time, namely, while he lived and spoke) that all men were sufficiently eloquent in that wherein they had knowledge.'

Romae quotannis bini consules creabantur, 'every year two consuls at a time used to be created at Rome,' i. e. it was a continued custom.

Proelio se expediebant, they were preparing themselves for the battle,' i. e. they began to do so at the specified time.

III. Perfect (a) as aorist, or historical perfect: Vixit inaequalis clavum ut mutaret in horas, 'he lived so inconsistently (a mere statement of a past occurrence) that he changed the fashion of his robe every hour.'

With an imperfect following: Quo tempore Philippus Graeciam evertit, etiam tum Athenae gloriâ litterarum et artium florebant, ' at the time when Philip overthrew Greece (a mere statement of a past occurrence, happening at a specified time, and subsequent to prior events expressed or presumed), even then (at the time) Athens was flourishing in the renown of literature and art.'

(b) As a true perfect, expressing the continuance of an action up to the present time, and its completion now: Ille potens sui laetusque degit, cui licet in diem dixisse-Vixi, he lives master of himself and happy, who can say, at the end of every day I have lived,' i. e. I have completed a period of living; compare this with the first example of the aorist perfect, and with the converse saying of the Emperor Titus: diem perdidi, 'I have lost a day.' So also: fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Dardanidum, we have been'-but are no more. Sometimes this usage is fully explained by the context; as is mos usque ad hoc tempus permansit, that custom has continued up to this day.'

Obs. The present may sometimes be used instead of the imperfect or historical perfect, and even in the same sentence with the other tense; as Eo postquam Cæsar pervenit, obsides, arma, servos qui ad eos perfugissent poposcit: dum ea conquiruntur et conferuntur, nocte intermissa circiter hominum millia IV. ex castris Helvetiorum egressi ad Rhenum finesque Germanorum contenderunt, where conquiruntur and conferuntur are used instead of the imperfect by the side of the historical perfect. Exspectabant omnes, quo tandem Verres progressurus esset, quum repente proripi hominem ac deligari jubet, where jubet is used instead of the historical perfect by the side of the imperfect.

IV. Pluperfect: Quum esset Demosthenes, multi oratores magni et clari fuerunt, et antea fuerant, nec postea defecerunt, they were at the time when Demosthenes flourished, they had been before, and were not wanting afterwards,' (where the expression of anteriority stands between historical statements of fact).

Quum ego illum vidi, jam consilium mutaverat, when I saw him he had already changed his mind' (the change was anterior to my seeing him).

Irruerant Danai et tectum omne tenebant, the Greeks had rushed in (previously) and were occupying (at the time) all the building.'

Daphnis sub ilice consederat, compulerantque greges Corydon et Thyrsis in unum; huc mihi caper deerraverat; atque ego Daphnin adspicio, Daphnis had already taken his seat under the oak; Corydon and Thyrsis had already driven their flocks together; my he-goat had wandered to this spot; and as a consequence of this previous state of things, I see' (i. e. I saw, according to the last observation) 'Daphnis.'

V. Future: Tu bibes Caecubam uvam, 'you shall drink the Cæcuban wine' (which conveys a permission or a promise).

Quando veritas ullum inveniet parem? 'when will Truth find any one equal to him?' (where the whole of future time is excluded from the range of choice).

Illo tempore Respublica florebit, at that time the Commonwealth will flourish' (where a subsequent event is predicted).

Obs. Students will observe that the Latin language can carry the future indicative through all the members of a period, whereas in English the sign of the future is expressed only in the leading sentence. Thus we say: profecto beati erimus, quum corporibus relictis cupiditatum erimus expertes, truly we shall be happy, when having left our bodies we are, i. e. shall be, free from passionate desire;' naturam si sequemur ducem, nunquam aberrabimus, if we follow nature as our guide, we shall never go wrong;' ut voles me esse, ita ero, 'I will be, as you wish.'

The general meaning of the different moods has been already given (Part I. 70 (b)), and the above instances will sufficiently illustrate the use of the indicative.

(B) The imperative mood of the second person is either a direct command or an intreaty, and in some verbs, which are limited to this mood, it has become a mere interjection (104, h). Fac and cura are often used periphrastically with ut. The third person of the imperative is generally employed in laws, in imitations of the legal style, and in prohibitions with ne. The following are examples:

Patres conscripti, subvenite misero mihi, ite obviam injuriae, 'O Senators, patrician and elected, assist unhappy me, go forth to meet wrong-doing.'

Fac venias or ut venias, 'make a point of coming.'

Cura, ut valeas, 'take care of your health.'

Regio imperio duo sunto, iique consules appellantor, 'let there be two with kingly authority, and let them be called consuls.' Servus meus Sticho liber esto, let my slave Sticho be free' (in a will).

Ter uncti transnanto Tiberim somno quibus est opus alto, 'let those who need sound sleep anoint themselves and swim thrice across the Tiber' (in an imitation of the style of laws and medical prescriptions).

says,

Et ille, Audite vero, audite,' inquit, and he "Hear ye, hear ye" (in a ludicrous imitation of scholastic pomposity. Cic. de Orat. II. 7, 28).