used with the final clause that facio ut is often a mere periphrasis for a verb of action; as faciunt inviti ut_dent = dunt inviti, 'they give unwillingly;' libenter ac saepe fecerunt ut laudarent, they often and willingly praised.' The same is the case with many verbs expressing a result, a consequence, a contingency, as fit ut, fieri potest ut, accidit ut, accedit ut, sequitur ut, &c.

Obs. 2 Some verbs of willingness or permission, which usually take the infinitive, and some verbs of asking and advising, take the subjunctive without ut; this is particularly the case with fac, velim, nolim, malim, licet, necesse est, and oportet; as tu velim animo sapienti sis, I wish you to be wise.'

179 Whenever we wish to express the object or reference of an emotion with some indication of the cause, we use quod with the finite verb instead of the infinitive. This is particularly the case with verbs of grief, joy, surprise and admiration, and the sense is sometimes strengthened by a demonstrative antecedent; as

Doleo quod stomacharis, 'I am sorry that (or 'because') you are angry.'

Illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinendos censuit, 'that is particularly worthy of admiration, namely, that he advised the retention of the prisoners.'

But gaudeo, doleo, miror may also take the infinitive (e. g. Cic. Att. xv. 27; vi. 3; ad div. I. 7), and there is only a shade of difference between the objective and causal construction.

180

There are three cases in which the infinitive may be used without the support of any finite verb:

(a) In the oblique narration, where it may even appear in relative sentences; as se quoque, quum transiret mare, non Ciliciam aut Lydiam, quippe tanti belli exiguam hanc esse mercedem, sed Persepolim, &c., imperio suo destinasse, where scripsit or dixit is to be supplied.

(b) As an equivalent to the present or imperfect indicative, which is probably a result of the oblique narration, the main verb being tacitly supposed; thus, ingenium ejus haud absurdum; posse versus facere, &c., it is reported that her abilities were the reverse of contemptible; that is, she could make verses, &c.;' postquam in aedes irruperunt, diversi regem quaerere, after they broke into the palace [we are told], they went in different directions to seek the king.'

Obs. The ellipsis of coepit, coeperunt, which is given in most Grammars, is not always applicable, and seems not to be founded in truth.

(c) In exclamations the accusative is used with the infinitive, as a merely objective sentence, just as the accusative alone is used with interjections (168); thus, adeone hominem esse infelicem quenquam, 'could any man at all be so unlucky!'

(2) Participles.

181 The participle, which must be regarded as a verb used adjectively, retains the verbal meaning of its tenses, so far as they are distinguished in this form, and governs the same case as its verb, except when it has assumed a secondary and attributive meaning; thus,

Dionysius cultros metuens tonsorios candenti carbone sibi adurebat capillum, 'Dionysius fearing the barber's rasor used to burn his hair with red hot charcoal.'

Caesar aggressus Pompeianos ex vallo deturbavit, 'Cæsar having attacked the Pompeians, drove them from the rampart.'

Quid nimis grave est in homines tanti facinoris convictos? 'what is too severe for men convicted of so great a crime?'

Atticus liberalitate utens nullas inimicitias gessit, 'Atticus, employing liberality, cherished no enmity.'

Obs. 1 When the present participle does not signify an action but a condition it becomes a mere adjective and is followed by a genitive (see above, 151). On the other hand, a verbal noun may take the case of the verb from which it is formed; as Quid tibi istunc tactio est? 'what have you to do with touching that man?' Quid tibi huc receptio ad te est meum virum? 'what right have you to receive my husband into your house?' This usage seems, however, to be confined to interrogations.

Obs. 2 As the passive voice has no present participle, and as only deponent verbs have a past participle with an active signification, it is obvious that the application of the Latin participle to the expression of subordinate ideas must be very limited. And the want of a definite article leaves us no outward means of distinguishing between the participle as an epithet or description, and the same word as a causal, concessive, or hypothetical term. Hence, while on the one hand it is generally more convenient to substitute a complete sentence with some conjunction for the participle, as used in Greek, on the other hand, the Latin participle easily passes into a mere adjective, and, from that, becomes fixed in use as a substantive. Thus the active participles adolescens, parens, and sapiens are constantly used as substantives; secundus, following,' is always an adjective, 'second,' i. e. 'following in time or order,' and is generally used in a metaphorical or applied sense, as secundus ventus, 'a fair wind,' i. e. 'one which follows the ship,'

secundae res, fair, favouring, prosperous circumstances.' It is used properly in Virgil, En. 1. 156: curru secundo, the chariot which follows them,' i. e. the steeds. The passive participles acutus, argutus, &c., are almost always employed as epithets, and the neuters commentum, consultum, dictum, furtum, placitum, praeceptum, scriptum, &c., are to all intents and purposes substantives. And some of the participles in -ns have their degrees of comparison like the ordinary adjectives.

182 The participle is used in its proper or verbal sense,

(a) As a secondary predicate or apposition to the subject, which may be resolved into a parallel verb with a copulative conjunction; as

Lex est voluntas Dei, imperans honesta, prohibens contraria, 'law is the will of God, and it commands what is virtuous, and prohibits the contrary.'

(b) As a tertiary predicate or apposition to the object, which may also be resolved as in the former case; but here the participle is in the perfect passive, and precedes in the resolved construction; as

Triginta tyranni plurimorum bona publicata inter se diviserunt, 'the thirty tyrants confiscated and divided among themselves the property of very many persons.'

Antiocho bellum a Romanis denuntiatum est, quod ille facile susceptum infeliciter gessit, 'the Romans declared war against Antiochus, which he undertook without hesitation but carried on unfortunately.'

(c) In temporal sentences; as

Domum reversus, litteras inveni tuas, 'when I got home, I found your letter.'

(d) In final sentences; as

Pergit ad Hammonem consulturus oraculum, he goes to Jupiter Hammon, for the purpose of consulting the oracle.'

(e) In causal sentences; as

Aer effluens huc et illuc ventos efficit, the air by rushing to and fro (i. e. because it does so) produces winds.'

(f) In concessive sentences, sometimes with quamvis, &c. added; as

Caesarem milites, quamvis recusantem, ultro in Africam sunt secuti, 'the soldiers went so far as to accompany Cæsar to Africa, although he refused to have them.'

(g) In the ablative absolute, as hypothetical, temporal, causal, or concessive; as

Tarquinio regnante, when Tarquin was king.'

Antonius, repudiata Octavia, Cleopatram duxit uxorem, ‘Antony, having divorced Octavia (i. e. after he had done so), married Cleopatra.'

Comprehendi non poterat, tot Persarum millibus laturis opem regi, he could not be taken, because so many thousand Persians were likely to assist their king.'

Proposita sibi morte, although death was set before him.'

Obs. 1 In some passive participles the ablative absolute is used impersonally to denote the previous state of things which caused or suggested the main action; as Alexander, audito, Darium appropinquare, &c., Alexander, it being heard (i. e. intelligence having been brought) that Darius was drawing near, &c.'

The participles generally used in this way are audito, cognito, comperto, desperato, nunciato, edicto.

Obs. 2 Some passive participles are used in the neuter accus. after habeo, to form a periphrastic perfect, as in many of the modern languages; such are cognitum, comprehensum, constitutum, deliberatum, exploratum, perspectum, persuasum, &c.; as hoc cognitum habeo = hoc cognovi. All these, except persuasum, may agree with the object of the verb; as Omnes habeo cognitos sensus adolescentis, 'I have learnt all the feelings of the young man.'

(3) Gerunds and Gerundives.

183 The participle in -ndus is really only another form of that in -ns; it is therefore present in tense and active in signification; as

Volvenda dies, en, attulit ultro, 'time rolling on has brought it to you unexpectedly.' (Virg. En. IX. 7.) Æn.

Quae ante conditam condendamve urbem traduntur, 'traditions derived from a period when the city was neither built nor building.' (Liv. Præfat.)

184 The participle in -ndus is generally found as a substitute for some use of the infinitive active (above, 70, (e), Obs. 2); and it is called the gerundium or gerund, when it governs the case of the verb, and the gerundivum or gerundive, when it agrees with the object; thus in consilium capiendi urbem we have a gerund, but in consilium urbis capiendae, a gerundive, and both phrases mean the design of taking the city.' This gerundive is merely

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an attraction; for dandus dans, means 'giving;' ad dandum opes means for giving riches;' and this is attracted into the case of the object in ad opes dandas, 'for riches-giving,' with precisely the same signification.

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185 This attraction always takes place in the nominative after the impersonal est, in the sense of 'it is the duty, part, obligation, or destiny,' so that the verb becomes personal; in such a phrase as sapientis est seipsum nosse, it is the part of a wise man to know himself,' we should not think of inserting the gerund or gerundive; and we might say also, est Romanorum delere Carthaginem, 'it is the part of the Romans to destroy Carthage;' but if, instead of the genitive with the infinitive, we had the dative of the person, the only allowable construction would be that of the attracted gerund or gerundive: delenda vobis est Carthago, 'Carthage is for you to destroy,' 'you ought to destroy it.' This would commonly be rendered Carthage is to be destroyed,' and, from our idiom, it has been supposed that the participle in -ndus is future and passive. But it is often a matter of indifference in English, whether we use the active or passive infinitive; thus, he is a man to love,' =‘he is a man to be loved;' 'I give you this to eat,'='I give you this to be eaten,' &c.; and this is the reason why a similar interchange has been erroneously presumed in Latin. No one can doubt that the gerund is active; but if vivendum est vivere est = oportet vivere, there can be no reason why the gerundive should not be active also; for they are used sometimes in the very same sentence; as nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda tellus, 'now we must drink, now we must beat the ground with free foot;' and the gerundive and active infinitive are used indifferently, though the former is preferred, after verbs which express that a thing is given out, commissioned, or undertaken to be done; such as do, trado, permitto, accipio; thus we may have Antigonus Eumenem mortuum propinquis sepeliendum tradidit, ‘Antigonus gave up the dead body of Eumenes to his friends for burial' (i. e. 'to bury'). (Corn. Nep. Eumen. 13); or, tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Creticum portare ventis, 'I will give up sorrow and fear to the wanton winds for transportation (i. e. 'to carry') to the Cretan sea.' (Hor. 1 Carm. XXVI. 1.)

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186 The gerund in -dum, as it is called, is always dependent on prepositions, and mostly on ad or inter; as