(cc) Ut is similarly used to denote the end or object after verbs of expecting, persuading, constraining, and the like; thus, Magno opere te hortor, mi Cicero, ut non solum orationes meas, sed hos etiam de philosophia libros studiose legas. Cic. Off. 1. 1. Te illud admoneo, ut quotidie meditere, resistendum esse iracundiæ. Cic. Quint. Fr. 1. 1, 13. Huic persuadet, uti ad hostes transeat. Cæs. B. G. III. 18. Impellimur natura, ut prodesse velimus quam plurimis, imprimis docendo. Cic. Fin. XIII. 20. Senatus P. Lentulum, ut se abdicaret prætura, coëgit. Cic. Cat. IV. 8. Opera danda est, ut verbis utamur quam usitatissimis et quam maxime aptis, id est, rem declarantibus. Cic. Fin. v. 20. Ante senectutem curavi, ut bene viverem; in senectute, ut bene moriar. Sen. Ep. 61. Consulere vivi ac prospicere debemus, ut liberorum nostrorum solitudo et pueritia quam firmissimo præsidio munita sit. Cic. Verr. 1. 58.

=

(B) Quo and quominus.

Quo ut eo is used to denote the end when there is an implication of the means, by which it may be effected; and in this form of the final sentence we have often an adjective or adverb in the comparative degree (see, e. g. Ter. Phorm. 1. 2. 54). This is always the case in the negative form, and quo minus = ut eo minus expresses the negative end or purpose after verbs signifying to hinder or refuse (above, p. 203). Thus we have In funeribus Atheniensium sublata erat celebritas virorum ac mulierum, quo lamentatio minueretur. Cic. Leg. 11. 26. Ager non semel aratur, sed novatur et iteratur, quo meliores fœtus possit et grandiores edere. Cic. Or. II. 30. Medico puto aliquid dandum esse, quo sit studiosior. Cic. ad div. XVI. 4. Rebus terrenis multa externa, quo minus perficiantur, possunt obsistere. Cic. Nat. Deor. II. 13. Nihil impedit, quo minus id, quod maxime placeat, facere possimus. Cic. Fin. 1. 10. Mors non deterret sapientem, quominus in omne tempus reipublicæ suisque consulat. Cic. Tusc. I. 38. Præter quercum Dodoneam nihil desideramus, quominus Epirum ipsam possidere videamur. Cic. Att. II. 4. Nihil de me tulistis, quo minus in civium essem numero. Cic. Dom. 31. Nemini civi ulla, quo minus adesset, satis justa excusatio est visa. Cic. Pis. 15. Quæ relligio C. Mario fuerat, quo minus C. Glauciam prætorem occideret, ea nos relligione in privato Lentulo liberamur. Cic, Cat. III. 16.

(7) Quin.

As we have seen above (p. 203), quin denotes the negation of a consequence after a sentence which is in itself negative. Its usages may be divided into two classes-the negation of a doubt, and the absolute negation.

(aa) Quin (but that') is used after non dubito, non dubium est, quis dubitat? = nemo dubitat. Thus, Non dubitari debet, quin fuerint ante Homerum poëtæ. Cic. Brut. 18. Non debes dubitare, quin, aut aliqua republica, sis futurus, qui esse debes; aut perdita, non afflictiore conditione, quam ceteri. Cic. Fam. VI. 1. Jus jurandum, patri datum, ita conservavi, ut nemini dubium esse debeat, quin reliquo tempore eadem mente sim futurus. Corn. Nep. XXIII. 2. Quis dubitet, quin in virtute divitiæ positae sint? Cic. Par. VI. 2.

(bb) Quin ('so, such that—not') is used generally after an absolute negation in the main sentence, or when it contains a question equivalent to an absolute negation. Thus, Cleanthes negat ullum esse cibum tam gravem, quin is die et nocte concoquatur. Cic. Nat. Deor. II. 9. Ego nihil prætermisi, quantum facere potui, quin Pompeium a Cæsaris conjunctione avocarem. Cic. Phil. II. 10. Nemo Lilybæi fuit, quin viderit; nemo in Sicilia, quin audierit. Cic. Verr. v. 54. Nego ullam gemmam aut margaritam fuisse, quin quaesierit, inspexerit, abstulerit. Ib. Iv.1. Dies vero nullus est, quin hic Satrius domum meam ventitet. Cic. Att. I. 1. Literas ad te nunquam habui, cui darem, quin dederim. Cic. Fam. XII. 19. Quis est, quin cernat, quanta vis sit in sensibus? Cic. Acad. 11. 7. Nihil est, quin male narrando possit depravari. Ter. Phorm. IV. 4. 17. Non possum facere, quin quotidie ad te mittam literas. Cic. Att. XII. 27. Non possum quin exclamem. Plaut. Trin. III. 2. 79. Non potest, quin obsit. Plaut. Mil. III. 1. 7. Prorsus nihil abest, quin ego sim miserrimus. Cic. Att. XI. 15. Haud multum abfuit, quin interficeretur. Liv. XLII. 44. Aberit non longe, quin hoc a me decerni velit. Cic. Att. IX. 9. Causæ nihil erat, quin secus judicaret ipse de se Quintius. Cic. Quint. 9. Quid est causæ, quin decemviri coloniam in Janiculum possint deducere? Cic. Agr. 11. 27. Non est in nostra potestate, quin illa eveniant, quorum causæ fuerint. Cic. Fat. 19.

Obs. 1 If the negation in the final clause is emphatic we must have ut non instead of quin. Thus, Neque ullo modo facere possum, ut non sim popularis. Cic. Agr. 1x. 9. Fieri non potest, ut eum tu in provincia non cognoris. Cic. Verr. II. 77.

Qbs. 2 If the main sentence and the final clause have the same subject, we may translate the latter by the participle with the preposition without.' Thus, Timoleontem mater post fratris necem nunquam adspexit, quin eum fratricidam impiumque compellaret. Corn. Nep. xx. 1(without calling him a fratricide and unnatural monster'). Nulli ex itinere excedere licebat, quin ab equitatu Cæsaris exciperentur. Cæs. B. C. 1. 79 (no one could fall out on the march, without being cut off by Cæsar's cavalry').

§ 15. (h) Causal Sentences.

210 Causal sentences explain the cause of what is asserted, and are expressed by the relative (above, 205 (8), (bb)), by the participle (182, (c)), by quia, quod, quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, siquidem, followed by the indicative (176, (3), (b)), by quum, generally followed by the subjunctive (176, (3), (a)), and by qui, ut qui, quippe qui most frequently with the subjunctive (176, (3), (c)). The conjunctions nam and enim form distinct and independent clauses, which are not even co-ordinate sentences, unless these particles are connected with adversative or copulative conjunctions. These usages in their general application have been sufficiently illustrated above (pp. 199, 200). It will be observed that, when relative particles are used, the causal sentence is a modification either of the temporal sentence, in its application to contemporary acts (206, (a)), or of the objective sentence, when the antecedent is expressed or distinctly implied. But in the causal application of the temporal sentence we have the indicative only when the contemporary occurrence is regarded as in itself the explanation of the fact, and here we generally have quoniam (= quum jam), quando or quandoquidem, rather than quum. Thus, Quoniam tu ita vis, nimium me gratum esse concedam. Cic. Planc. 33. Quando artibus, inquit, honestis, nullus in urbe locus [est], res hodie minor est here quam fuit, atque eadem cras deteret exiguis aliquid, proponimus illuc ire. Juv. III. 21. Deos quæso, ut sit superstes, quandoquidem ipse est ingenio bono. Ter. Andr. III. 2. 7. On the other hand, we have the subjunctive, and generally with quum when the idea of time is subordinated to that of dependence on the circumstance mentioned in the main clause, as the following examples will show: Quum solitudo et vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet, amicitias comparare. Cic. Fin. 1. 20. Dionysius quum in communibus suggestis consistere non auderet, concionari ex turri alta solebat. Cic. Tusc. v. 20. Socratis ingenium variosque

sermones immortalitati scriptis suis Plato tradidit, quum ipse litteram Socrates nullam reliquisset. Cic. Or. III. 16. De pietate Attici quid plura commemorem, quum hoc ipsum vere gloriantem audierim in funere matris suæ, se nunquam cum ea in gratiam redisse. Corn. Nep. xxv. 17. Aliæ in historia leges observandæ, aliæ in poëmate, quippe quum in illa ad veritatem referantur, in hoc ad delectationem pleraque. Cic. Leg. 1. 1. Percrebuerat ea tempestate pravissimus mos, quum plerique orbi fictis adoptionibus adsciscerent filios. Tac. Ann. xv. 19. Munatius Plancus, tribunus plebis, quotidie meam potentiam criminabatur, quum diceret, senatum, non quod sentiret, sed quod ego vellem, decernere. Cic. Mil. 5. Contendi cum P. Clodio, quum ego publicam causam, ille suam defenderet. C. Anton. in Cic. Att. XIV. 13. The immediate reference of quod or quia to an antecedent expressed or implied in the main sentence is shown by such passages as the following: Hoc uno præstamus vel maxime feris, quod colloquimur inter nos, et quod exprimere dicendo sensa possumus. Cic. Or. 1. 8. Dupliciter delectatus sum tuis literis, et quod ipse risi, et quod te intellexi jam posse ridere. Cic. ad div. IX. 20. Aristides nonne ob eam causam expulsus est patria, quod præter modum justus esset? Cic. Tusc. v. 36. Alcibiades ostendit, Lacedæmonios eo nolle confligere classe, quod pedestribus copiis plus, quam navibus valerent. Corn. Nep. vII. 8. Eram otiosus in Tusculano propterea, quod discipulos obviam miseram. Cic. ad div. IX. 18. Recordatione nostræ amicitiæ sic fruor, ut beate vixisse videar, quia cum Scipione vixerim. Cic. Lael. 4. Quia scripseras te proficisci cogitare, eo te hærere censebam. Cic. Att. x. 15.

§ 16. (i) Concessive Sentences.

211 Concessive sentences, which strengthen or limit by an admission, are expressed by the participle with or without quamvis or quamquam (182, (d)), by qui with the subjunctive (205, (B), (dd)), by quanquam and utut generally with the indicative (176, (4)), by etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, with either the indicative or subjunctive, according to the rule for the use of si in conditional propositions (128, xvI., 176, (4)), and by quamvis, quantumvis, licet, ut, quum, with the subjunctive only (176, (4)). The use of the concessive conjunctions has been sufficiently illustrated above (pp. 202, 357). When quum is used as a concessive particle, it is followed by the indicative, if the temporal meaning prevails; as Has tabulas Marcellus, quum omnia profana fecit ('at the time when he profaned everything, although he was at that time profaning everything'),

non attigit. Cic. Verr. IV. 55. But more frequently the subjunctive is used to indicate the dependence of the secondary predication. Thus we have, Druentia, Alpinus amnis, quum aquæ vim vehat ingentem, non tamen navium patiens est. Liv. XXI. 31. Marcelli, Scipionis, Mummii domus quum honore et virtute florerent, signis et tabulis pictis erant vacuæ. Cic. Verr. 1. 24. Phocion fuit perpetuo pauper, quum divitissimus esse posset. Corn. Nep. XIX. 1. Toto prælio, quum ab hora septima ad vesperam pugnatum sit, aversum hostem videre nemo potuit. Cæs. B. G. 1. 26.

§ 17. Figures of Speech.

212 In order to complete the subject of Syntax, it will be convenient here to enumerate the different figures of speech which have been defined and exemplified by rhetoricians. The writers on oratory treat of figurae sententiarum as well as figurae dictionis. The grammarian is concerned only with the latter, which may be divided into the following classes: (A) Figures of Syntax; (B) Figures of Style.

(A) Figures of Syntax.

The figures of syntax are the following:
(a) Figures of excess:

(aa) Pleonasm, or accumulation of words either in a single phrase, as audivi auribus, vidi oculis; or in co-ordinate sentences, as gaudeo vehementerque laetor, oro te atque obsecro, &c.

(bb) Polysyndeton, or superabundance of conjunctions, as Fataque, fortunasque virum, moresque manusque.

Obs. 1 This figure is regularly adopted in some cases. For instance, two or more epithets in agreement with the same substantive require the intervention of a copulative conjunction, unless one of them is so closely connected with the substantive as to form only one idea with it. Thus we must not say multae graves causae, multa magna incommoda, though we omit the conjunction in English, but we must say multae et graves causae, multa et magna incommoda. On the other hand we may say navis oneraria maxima, agreste duplex amiculum, because navis oneraria is a particular kind of ship, and duplex amiculum a particular kind of garment. We may also say multi fortissimi atque optimi viri (Cic. ad div. v. 17), because the included epithets indicate a special and distinguished class of men. We find occasionally such phrases as externos multos claros viros (Cic. ad div. vI. 24); militare honestum funus (Corn. Nep. XVIII. 13); but these are exceptional usages, and should not

be imitated.