his De Oratore, an essay still extant in the form of a dialogue between orators of the preceding generation, and his treatises De Republica and De Legibus. About one third of the former and one half of the latter remain to us.

In 53 Crassus and his army suffered a reverse in Mesopotamia. Caesar's power continued to grow, and Pompey, becoming alarmed, drew off toward the nobles. Milo and Clodius renewed their brawls, with the result that in 52 Clodius was killed in the Appian Way. Cicero defended Milo, but was powerless to prevent disorder in the city. Pompey seemed the only man capable of restoring quiet. At this juncture the senate decreed that Pompey, with others named, "should see to it that the state suffer no harm." This decree permitted the exercise of the military imperium within the city walls, and practically made dictators of those thus invested with extraordinary power. In effect, Pompey became dictator. Milo was arraigned, and in spite of Cicero's defense of him, was exiled. Cicero was successful in defending Saufeius, a comrade of Milo, and in prosecuting Munatius Bursa, concerned in the riot that followed the death of Clodius.

Cicero set out for Cilicia, of which province he was made governor in the spring of 51. He had previously been elected to the college of augurs. Personal success was to some degree a compensation for political failure. Only one trouble clouded his private life at this time; his financial affairs fell into such disorder that rigid economy and the aid of Atticus were necessary to retrieve matters without borrowing from Caesar.

Cicero regarded his governorship of Cilicia as a species of exile. To be kept from his beloved city in a critical time was a severe trial to him. Still, longing for home did not interfere with the faithful administering of the affairs of his province. He even introduced reforms which, if carried out by succeeding governors, would have been of lasting value.

After his year of office as proconsul Cicero promptly returned to Rome, landing at Brundisium in November. He found the city breathlessly awaiting the next move of Caesar, whose ten

years' governorship in Gaul was soon to end. Pompey was Caesar's only opponent; but the constitutional party thought that, with Pompey's help, they could prevent Caesar from becoming consul and master of Rome. The prestige of Caesar's wonderful campaign in Gaul was great, but the senate had appointed Ahenobarbus in his place. In a letter to Atticus, Cicero says, "The position is this: we must either let Caesar stand for the consulship, still keeping his army with the senate's consent, or supported by the tribunes; or we must persuade him to resign his province and his army, and so be consul."

But civil war was now on the eve of breaking out between Caesar and Pompey. Cicero, who had cultivated the friendship of Caesar to please Pompey, was compelled to choose between the two. His dread of Caesar's revolutionary political principles left him in reality no recourse. He took sides with Pompey and the nobles. Events succeeded one another with startling rapidity. In January, 49, the senate declared martial law, to obviate the veto of Caesar's tribunes, who at once left the city. Caesar led part of his army across the Rubicon, and the Civil War was begun. Pompey, hastily abandoning the city, attempted a stand against Caesar in Apulia, with Brundisium in the rear. This plan was defeated by his own lieutenant, Domitius Ahenobarbus, who ventured to encounter Caesar at Corfinium, eighty miles east of Rome. The overwhelming defeat of Domitius destroyed Pompey's chance of holding Italy. He escaped from Brundisium, which already was partially blocked by Caesar, and in April crossed the Adriatic with the remnant of his troops.

Pompey's prestige in the East, the scene of his former triumphs, enabled him to raise a fresh army. Meantime Caesar went to Spain and crushed Pompey's followers in the West. By the end of 49 he was ready to cross over to Greece and enter upon the death struggle with Pompey. In Italy Caesar had won all hearts by his generosity toward the conquered. Cicero wrote to Atticus, speaking of Caesar and Pompey, "The one (alas, that it should be so!) earns applause in the worst of causes; the other, in the

best of causes, nothing but reproach." Caesar's merciful law in regard to debtors not only relieved the debtors, but at the same time allayed the fears of the money lenders. Land was required to be taken by creditors at its value before the Civil War. The equestrian order was thus permanently attached to Caesar.

While these events were changing the course of Roman history, Cicero was in great trouble and perplexity. In spite of all, he contrived still to hope for peace. Caesar had, in fact, though perhaps insincerely, made some proposals to Pompey, which were accepted with the condition that Caesar should withdraw his troops from Italy. When Caesar refused to accept this condition, Cicero, content with doing what he could as circumstances might arise, ceased to take an active part in the conflict. His affection for Pompey wavered for a time and then returned with its former strength.

Caesar, now master of the situation, made strenuous efforts to induce Cicero to acquiesce. He hoped that Cicero's acceptance of the present state of affairs would soothe the minds of those who still waited for the return of Pompey and still clung to the constitutional party. Caesar, meeting Cicero at Formiae, tried to persuade him to come to Rome and "speak for peace." Cicero could not be persuaded to give any assistance to Caesar, but, on the contrary, in June, 49, he sailed from Caieta for Pompey's headquarters in Greece.

Active operations were again begun in the Civil War. At Dyrrachium Pompey gained a strategic advantage and Caesar moved into eastern Greece. Pompey passed, by the north, into Macedonia. At Pharsalus, in August, 48, the armies met. Pompey was defeated, fled to Egypt, and was murdered by the order of the Egyptian king. Meanwhile Cicero, soon after Pharsalus, returned to Italy. He was allowed by Antony, Caesar's master of horse, to remain in Brundisium. The state of his mind was pitiable, and his health was weakened. He blamed himself for having mingled in the strife and for having failed to throw in his lot with the remnant of Pompey's forces in Africa. Misfortunes

fell thick upon him. The condition of his domestic affairs was distressing, his son-in-law Dolabella misbehaved, and the fate of his brother Quintus was uncertain. This was, indeed, the darkest hour of his life.

Caesar dallied in Egypt during the early half of 47, but by letter expressed the most generous intentions toward Cicero. He permitted Cicero to retain the laureled fasces gained in Cilicia, as if he had taken no part in the war, and pardoned Quintus. When Caesar returned and met Cicero in southern Italy, the reconciliation was complete.

We may well imagine Cicero's deep interest in the measures which Caesar, during his brief rule, instituted in Italy. Besides putting into force new laws, he provided for roads and drainage works, and introduced a modified Egyptian calendar. The reform in the calendar was of no small benefit, because the errors of the old Roman reckoning had caused a discrepancy between the recorded and the actual year. He, also, broadened the franchise, and gave limited home rule to the Asiatic provinces. He established a working method by which the great Empire could be successfully governed, but forgot that the people would not forever suffer themselves to be excluded from a share in the management of their affairs. Cicero was forced to abandon the hope that Caesar might found "some sort of a free state," yet, against Cicero's better judgment, Caesar's unfailing generosity and fairness finally won the great orator, partially at least, to his side.

Cicero now became the chosen channel through which Caesar exercised clemency toward his late opponents. The speeches for Ligarius and for Marcellus are fine specimens of pleas for mercy. Socially Cicero enjoyed this new life. He became the friend of the younger supporters of Caesar, among whom were Hirtius and Pansa. In the society of congenial friends and in writing the Brutus, the Orator, and a series of works expounding Greek philosophy, he tried to find consolation for the downfall of his political hopes. He also wrote a panegyric of Cato, which called forth from Caesar a reply called Anti-Cato. Other literary works of