and Confutation or refuting the objections and arguments of an adversary. The sources from which arguments are drawn, are called Loci, topics; and are either intrinsic or extrinsic; common or peculiar. 4. The Peroration, Epilogue or Conclusion.

THE QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES.

The quantity of a syllable is the space of time taken up in pronouncing it.

That part of grammar which treats of the quantity and accent of Syllables, and of the measures of verse, is called PROSODY.

Syllables, with respect to their quantity, are either long or short.

A long syllable in pronouncing requires double the time of a short; as, tĕndĕrě. Some syllables are common; that is, sometimes long, and sometimes short; as the second syllable in volucris.

A vowel is said to be long or short by nature, which is always so by custom, or by the use of the poets.

In polysyllables or long words, the last syllable except one is called the Penultima, or, by contraction, the Penult; and the last syllable except two, the Antepenultima. When the quantity of a syllable is not fixed by some particular rule, it is said to be long or short by authority; that is, according to the usage of the poets. Thus le in lego is said to be short by authority, because it is always made short by the Latin poets. In most Latin words of one or two syllables, according to our manner of pronouncing, we can hardly distinguish by the ear a long syllable from a short. Thus le in lego and legi seem to be sounded equally long; but when we pronounce them in composition, the difference is obvious; thus, perlego, perlēgi; relego, -ĕre; relēgo, -āre, &c. The rules of quantity are either General or Special. The former apply to all syllables, the latter only to some certain syllables.

GENERAL RULES.

I. A vowel before another vowel is short; as,

Meus alius: so nihil; h in verse being considered only as a breathing. In like manner in English, create, běhave.

Exc. 1. I is long in fio, fiebam, &c. unless when followed by r; as, fiĕri, fiĕrem; thus,

Omnia jam fient, fièri quæ posse negabam. Ovid.

Exc. 2. E having an i before and after it, in the fifth declension, is long; as, speciei. So is the first syllable in äer, dius, eheu, and the penultima in aulai, terrai, &c. in Pompei, Cai, and such like words; but we sometimes find Pompei in two syllables, Horat. Od. II. 7.

Exc. 3. The first syllable in ohe and Diana is common; so likewise is the penult of genitives in ius; as, illius, unius, &c. to be read long in prose. Alius, in the genitive is always long, as being contracted for aliius; alterius, short.

In Greek words, when a vowel comes before another, no certain rule concerning its quantity can be given.

Sometimes it is short: as, Danǎe, Idea, Sophia, Symphonia, Símõis, Hỹades, Phǎon, Deucalion, Pygmalion, Thebǎis, &c.

Often it is long: as, Lycaon, Machaon, Didymãon; Amphion, Arion, Ixion, Pandion; Náis, Lais, Achata; Briseis, Cadmeis; Latõus; & Latois, Myrtõus, Neretus, Priamētus; Achelōtus, Minōtus; Archelaus, Menelāus, Amphiarāus, Æneas, Penéus, Epēus, Acrisionéus, Adamantēus, Phœbēus, Giganteus; Darius, Basirius, Eugenius, Bacchius; Cassiopea, Cæsarea, Chæronéa, Cytherea, Galetea, Laodicea, Medea, Panthea, Penelopea; Clio, Enyo, Elegia, Iphigenia, Alexandria, Thalia, Antiochia, idololatria, litania, politia, &c. Laertes, Derphõbus, Dērjanira, Trões, herões, &c.

Sometimes it is common: as, Chorea, platea, Malea, Nereïdes, canopeum, Orion, Geryon, Eos, Eous, &c. So in foreign words, Michael, Israel, Raphael, Abraham, &c.

The accusative of nouns ín eus is usually short; as, Orphea, Salmonea, Capharĕa, &c. but sometimes long; as, Idomenea, Ilionea, Virg. Instead of Elegia, Cytherea, we find Elegera, Cytherēža, Ovid. But the quantity of Greek words cannot be properly understood without the knowledge of Greek. In English, a vowel before another is also sometimes lengthened; as, science, idea.

II. A vowel before two consonants, or before a double consonant, is long; (by position, as it is called;) as,

arma, fallo, axis, gāza, mājor: the compounds of jugum excepted; as, bijūgus, quadrijūgus, &c.

When the foregoing word ends in a short vowel, and the following begins with two consonants or a double one, that vowel is sometimes lengthened by the position; as,

Ferte citi flammas, date velă, scandite muros. Virg.

But this rarely occurs.
¶ A vowel before a mute and a liquid is common;
as in the middle syllable in volucris, tenebræ, thus,

Et primò similis volucri, mox vera volūcris. Ovid.
Nox tenebras, profert, Phoebus fugat inde tenebras. Id.

But in prose these words are pronounced short. So peragro, pharetra, podagra, chiragra, celebris, latebræ, &c.

To make this rule hold, three things are requisite. The vowel must be naturally short, the mute must go before the liquid, and be in the same syllable with it. Thus a in patris is made common in verse, because a in pater is naturally short, or always so by custom; but a in matris acris is always long, because long by nature or custom in mater and acer. In like manner the penult in salubris, ambŭlācrum, is always long, because they are derived from salus, salūtis, and ambulātum. So a in arte, abluo, &c. is long by position, because the mute and the liquid are in different syllables. L and r only are considered as liquids in Latin words; m and n do not take place except in Greek words.

III. A contracted syllable is long; as,

Nil, for nihil; mî, for mihi; cōgo, for coǎgo; alius, for aliius; tibicen, for tibiicen; it, for iit; sodes, for si audes; nolo, for non volo; bīga, for bijuga; scilicet, for scire licet, &c.

IV. A diphthong is always long; as,

Aurum, Cæsar, Eubæ, &c. Only præ in composition before a vowel is commonly short; as, præire, præustus; thus,

Nec totâ tamen ille prior præcunte carinâ. Virg.
Stipitibus durus agitur sudibusque præustis. Id.

But it is sometimes lengthened; as,

-cum vacuus domino præiret Arion. Statius.

In English we pronounce several of the diphthongs short, by sinking the sound of one vowel; but then there is properly no diphthong.

SPECIAL RULES.

I. CONCERNING THE FIRST AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES.

Preterites and Supines of Two Syllables.

V. Preterites of two syllables lengthen the former syllable; as, Veni, vidi,

vici.

Except bibi, scidi from scindo, fidi from findo, tuli, dědi, and stěti, which are shortened.

VI. Supines of two syllables lengthen the former syllable; as, Visum, cāsum, mōtum.

Except sătum, from sĕro; citum, from cico; litum, from lino; situm, from sino; stătum, from sisto; itum, from eo; dătum, fsom do; rutum, from the compounds of ruo; quitum, from queo; rătus, from reor.

Preterites which double the first syllable.

VII. Preterites which double the first syllable have both the first syllables short; as,

Cěcidi, tětigi, pěpůli, pěpĕri, didici, tutŭdi: except cěcidi, from cædo; pěpēdi, from pedo; and when two consonants intervene; as, fefelli, tětendi, &c.

INCREASE OF NOUNS.

A noun is said to increase when it has more syllables in any of the oblique cases than in the nominative; as, rex, rēgis. Here re is called the encrease or crement, and so through all the other cases. The last syllable is never esteemed a crement.

Some nouns have a double increase, that is, increase by more syllables than one; as, iter, itineris.

A noun in the plural is said to increase, when in any case it has more syllables than the genitive singular; as, gener, genēri, generōrum.

Nouns of the first, fourth, and fifth declensions, do not increase in the singular number, unless where one vowel comes before another; as, fructus, fructui; res, rěi ; which fall under Rule I.

Third Declension.

VIII. Nouns of the third declension which increase, make a and o long; e, i, and u short; as,

Pietatis, honōris; mulieris, lapidis, murmuris.

The chief exceptions from this rule are marked under the formation of the genitive in the third declension. But here perhaps it may be proper to be more particular.

A.

A noun in A shortens atis in the genitive; as, dogma, -ătis; poema, -ătis.

0.

O shortens inis, but lengthens ēnis and ōnis; as, Cardo, inis; Virgo, -inis; Anio, ēnis; Cicero, -önis. Gentile or patrial nouns vary their quantity. Most of them shorten the genitive; as, Macedo, -õnis; Saxo, -õnis. Some are long; as, Suessiones, Vettōnes. Brittones is common.

I, C, D.

I shortens itis; as, Hydroměli, -itis. Ec lengthens -ecis; as, Halec, écis.

A noun in D shortens the crement; as, David, -idis.

L.

Masculines in AL shorten ălis; as, Sal, sălis; Hannibal, -ălis; Hasdrubal, -ălis; but neuters lengthen it; as, animal, -ālis.

Solis from sol is long; also Hebrew words in el; as, Michael, -ēlis. Other nouns in L shorten the crement; as, Vigil, -ilis; consul, -ŭlis.

N.

Nouns in ON vary their crement. Some lengthen it; as, Helicon, -ōnis; Chiron, -ōnis. Some shorten it; as, Memnon, õnis; Actæon, -õnis.

EN shortens inis; as, flumen, -inis: tibicen, -inis. Other nouns in N lengthen the penult. AN ânis; as, Titan, -ānis: En ēnis; as, Siren, -ēnis: In inis; as, delphin, -īnis. YN ÿnis ; as, Phorcyn, -inis.

R.

1. Neuters in AR lengthen aris; as, calcar, -āris. Except the following, bacchar, -ăris; jubar, -ăris; nectar, -ăris: Also the adjective par, păris, and its compounds, impar, -ăris; dispar, -ăris, &c. 2. The following nouns in R lengthen the genitive: Nar, Nāris, the name of a river; fur, fūris ; ver, vēris Also Recimer, -ēris; Byzer, -ēris; Ser, Sēris; Iber, -ēris; proper names.

:

3. Greek nouns in TER lengthen teris; as, crater, -ēris; character, -ēris. Except æther, -ĕris. 4. OR lengthens oris; as, amor, -ōris. Except neuter nouns; as, marmor, -õris; æquor, -õris: Greek nouns in tor; as, Hector, -õris; Actor, -õris; rhetor, -ŏris: Also, arbor, -oris, and memor, -õris. 5. Other nouns in R shorten the genitive; AR aris, masculine; as, Cæsar, -ăris; Hamilcar, ăris; lar, laris. ER eris of any gender; as, der, aĕris; mulier, -èris; cadaver, -ĕris; iter, anciently iliner, itineris; verbĕris, from the obsolete verber. UR uris; as, vultur, -ŭris; murmur, -ŭris. YR yris; as, Martyr, gris.

AS.

1. Nouns in AS, which have atis, lengthen the crement; as, pielas, -ātis; Macēnas, -ālis. Except anas, -ătis.

2. Other nouns in AS shorten the crement; as Greek nouns having the genitive in ădis, ătis, and ănis; thus, Pallas, -ădis; artocreas, -eătis; Melas, -ănis, the name of a river. So vas, vădis; mas, măris: But vas, vāsis, is long.

ES.

ES shortens the crement; as, miles, -itis; Ceres, -ĕris; pes, pědis.
Except locuples, -ētis; quies, ētis; mansues, -ētis; hæres, -ēdis; merces, -ēdis.

IS.

Nouns in IS shorten the crement; as, lapis, -idis; sanguis, -inis; Phyllis, -idis.

Except Glis, gliris; and Latin nouns which have itis; as, lis, lītis; dis, ditis; Quiris, -itis; Samnis, -itis: But Charis, a Greek noun, has Charitis.

The following also lengthen the crement: Crenis, -idis; Psophis, -idis; Nesis, -ïdis; proper names : And Greek nouns in is, which have also in; as, Salamis, or in, Salaminis.

Except nouns which have ūdis, ūris, and útis; as, incus, -ūdis ; jus, jūris ; salus, -ūtis. But Ligus has Liguris; the obsolete pecus, pecudis; and intercus, -utis.

The neuter of the comparative has ōris; as, melius, -ōris.

YS.

YS shortens ydis or ydos; as, chlamys, ÿdis or ÿdos; and lengthens ynis; as, Trachys, -īnis.

BS, PS, MS.

Nouns in S, with a consonant going before, shorten the penult of the genitive; as, cælebs, -rbis ; inops, -opis; hiems, hiĕmis.

Except Cyclops, -õpis; seps, sēpis: gryps, gryphis; Cecrops, -õpis; plebs, plēbis; hydrops, -õpis.

1. Nouns in X, which have the genitive in gis, shorten the crement; as, conjux, -ugis; remex, -igis; Allobrox, -ŏgis; Phryx, Phrygis. But lex, lēgis, and ex, rēgis, are long; and likewise frugis. 2. EX shortens icis; as, vertex, -icis: except vibex, -icis.

3. Other nouns in X lengthen the crement; as, pax, pācis; radix, -īcis; vox, võcis; lux, lūcis ; Pollux, -ucis, &c.

Except facis, necis, vicis, prěcis, calicis, cilicis, picis, fornicis, nivis, Cappadocis, ducis, nécis, crăcis, trucis, onychis, Erīcis, mastyx, - žchis, the rosin of the lentiscus, or mastich-tree, and many others whose quantity can only be ascertained by authority.

4. Some nouns vary the crement; as, Syphax, -ācis, or -ăcis ; Sandyx, -icis, or -icis; Bebryx, -ycis, or -ycis.

Increase of the Plural Number.

IX. Nouns of the plural number which increase, make A, E, and O long; but shorten I and U; as,

musārum, rerum, dominōrum; rēgibus, portubus: except bobus or būbus, contracted

for bõvibus.

INCREASE OF VERBS.

A verb is said to increase, when any part has more syllables than the second person singular of the present of the indicative active; as, amas, amāmus, where the second syllable ma is the increase or crement; for the last syllable is never called by that

name.

A verb often increases by several syllables; as, amas, amābāmīni; in which case it is said to have a first, second, or third increase.

X. In the increase of verbs, a, e, and o, are long; i and u, short; as,
Amare, docere, amātōte; legimus, sumus, volumus.

The poets sometimes shorten děděrunt and stětěrunt; and lengthen rimus and ritis, in the future of the subjunctive; as, transieritis aquas, Ovid. All the other exceptions from this rule are marked in the formation of the verb.

The first or middle syllables of words which do not come under any of the foregoing rules, are said to be long or short by authority; and their quantity can only be discovered from the usage of the poets, which is the most certain of all rules.

REMARKS ON THE QUANTITY OF THE PENULT OF WORDS.

1. Patronymics in IDES or ADES usually shorten the penult; as, Priamides, Atlantiădes, &c. Unless they come from nouns in eus; as, Pelides, Tydides, &c.

2. Patronymics, and similar words, in AIS, EIS, ITIS, OIS, OTIS, INE, and ONE, commonly lengthen the penult; as, Achais, Ptolemais, Chryseis, neis, Memphītis, Latōis, Icariotis, Nerine, Arisione. Except Thebais, and Phocăis; and Nereis, which is common.

3. Adjectives in ACUS, ICUS, IDUS, and IMUS, for the most part shorten the penult; as, Ægyptiacus, academicus, lepidus, legitimus; also superlatives; as, fortissimus, &c. Except opacus, amicus, apricus, pudicus, mendicus, posticus, fidus, infidus, (but perfidus of per and fides, is short,) bimus, quadrimus, patrimus, matrimus, opimus; and two superlatives, imus, prīmus.

4. Adjectives in ALIS, ANUS, ARUS, IVUS, ORUS, OSUS, lengthen the penult; as, dotālis, urbānus, avārus, æstivus, decōrus, arenosus. Except barbărus, opiparus.

5. Verbal adjectives in ILIS, shorten the penult; as, agilis, facilis, &c. But derivatives from nouns usually lengthen it; as, anilis, civilis, herilis, &c. To these add exilis, subtilis; and names of months, Aprilis, Quinctilis, Sextilis: Except humilis, parilis; and also similis. But all adjectives in atilis, are short; as, versatilis, volailis, umbratilis, &c.

6. Adjectives in INUS derived from inanimate things, as plants, stones, &c. also from adverbs of time, commonly shorten the penult; as, amaracinus, crocinus, cedrinus, faginus, oleaginus, ădamantinus, cristallinus, crastinus, pristinus, perendinus, &c.

Other adjectives in INUS are long; as, agninus, austrīnus, bīnus, clandestinus, Latīnus, marinus, upinus, vespertinus, &c..

7. Diminutives in OLUS, OLA, OLUM; and ULUS, ULA, ULUM, always shorten the penult; as, urceolus, filiola, musæõlum; lectulus, ratiuncula, corculum, &c.

8. Adverbs in TIM lengthen the penult; as, oppidātim, virītim, tributem. Except affătim, perpětim, and stătim.

9. Desideratives in URIO shorten the antepenultima, which in the second or third person is the penult; as, esŭrio, esuris, esurit. But other verbs in urio lengthen that syllable; as, ligūrio, ligūris; scaturio, scaturis, &c.

PENULT OF PROPER NAMES.

The following proper names lengthen the penult: Abdera, Abydus, Adonis, Esõpus, Ætōlus, Ahála, Alaricus, Alcides, Amyclæ, Andronicus, Anubis, Archimedes, Ariarathes, Ariobarzānes, Aristides, Aristobulus, Aristogiton, Arpinum, Artabanus; Brachmanes, Busiris, Buthrōtus; Cethegus, Chalcedon, Cleobulus, Cyrene, Cythera, Curētes ; Darīci, Demonicus, Diomedes, Diōres, Dioscuri; Ebudes, Eriphyle, Eubulus, Euclides, Euphrates, Eumēdes, Euripus, Euxinus,; Gargānus, Gætúlus, Granicus; Heliogabalus, Henricus, Heraclides, Heraclitus, Hippōnax, Hispanus; Irene; Lacydas, Latōna, Leucata, Lugdunum, Lycōras; Mandane, Mausolus, Maximinus, Meleager, Messala, Messana, Milētus; Nasica, Nicanor, Nicētas; Pachýnus, Pandora, Pelōris & -us, Pharsalus, Phoenice, Polites, Polyclétus, Polynices, Priapus; Sarpédon, Serapis, Sinõpe, Stratonice, Suffētes; Tigranes, Thessalonica; Veróna, Veronica.

The following are short: Amathus, Amphipolis, Anabosis, Anticyra, Antigonus, & -ne, Antilochus, Antiochus, Antiopa, Antipas, Antipăter, Antiphanes, Antiphǎtes, Antiphila, Antiphon, Anytus, Apulus, Areopagus, Ariminum, Armenus, Athesis, Attălus, Attica; Bitŭrix, Bructĕri; Calăber, Calicrates, Callistratus, Candăce, Cantăber, Carneǎdes, Cherilus, Chrysostomus, Cleombrotus Cleoměnes, Corycos, Constantinopolis, Craterus, Cratylus, Creměra, Črustumĕri, Cyběle, Cyclădes, Cyzicus; Dalmătæ, Damocles, Dardanus, Dejòces, Dejotărus, Democritus, Demipho, Didymus, Diogenes, Drepǎnum, Dumnōrix; Empedocles, Ephesus, Evergetes, Eumenes, Eurymědon, Euripylus; Fucinus; Geryones, Gyărus; Hecyra, Heliopolis, Hermione, Herodotus, Hesiodus, Hesione, Hippocrates, Hippotămos, Hypăta, Hypănis; Icărus, Icetas, Illyris, Iphitus, Ismărus, Ithaca; Laodice, Laomedon, Lampsăcus, Lamyrus, Lapithæ, Leucretilis, Libănus, Lipăre, v. -a, Lysimachus, Longimanus; Marathon, Mænǎlus, Marmarica, Massagětæ, Matrona, Megăra, Melitus, & -ta, Metropolis, Mutina, Myconus; Neocles, Neritos, Noricum; Omphăle; Patăra, Pegasus, Pharnǎces, Pisistratus, Polydămas, Polyxěna, Porsěna, or Porsenna, Praxitěles, Puteõli, Pylădes, Pythagoras; Sarmătæ, Sarsina, Seměle, Semiramis, Sequăni, & -a, Seriphos, Sicoris, Socrates, Sodoma, Sotǎdes, Spartacus, Sporădes, Strongyle, Stymphălus, Sybăris; Taygetus, Telegonus, Telemachus, Tenĕdos, Tarraco, Theophanes, Theophilus, Tomyrus; Urbicus; Veněti, Vologesus, Volusus; Xenocrates, Zorlus, Zopyrus.

The penult of several words is doubtful; thus, Batāvi, Lucan, Balăvi, Juv. & Mart. Fortuitus, Horat. Fortuitus, Mart. Some make fortuitus of three syllables; but it may be shortened like gratuitus, Stat. Patrimus, matrimus, præstolor, &c. are by some lengthened, and by some short ened; but for their quantity there is no certain authority.

FINAL SYLLABLES.

XI. A, in the end of a word declined by cases, is short; as, Musă, templă, Tydeă, lampădă.

Exc. The ablative of the first declension is long; as, Musâ, Ænēâ; and the voca tive of Greek nouns in as ; as, O Enca, O Pallá.

A in the end of a word not declined by cases is long; as, Amā, frustrā, præterea, ergā, intrā.

Exc. Ită, quiă, ejă, posteă, pută, (adv.) are short; and sometimes, though more rarely, the prepositions contră, ultră, and the compounds of ginta; as, trigintă, &c Contra, and ultra, when adverbs, are always long.

E.

XII. E, in the end of a word, is short; as,

Natě, sedilě, patrě, currě, nempě, antě.

Exc. 1. Monosyllables are long; as, mē, tē, sẽ; except these enclitic conjunctions, quě, vě, ně; and these syllabical adjections, ptě, cè, tě; as, suaptě, hujuscě, tutě, but these may be comprehended under the general rule, as they never stand by

themselves.

Exc. 2. Nouns of the first and fifth declension are long; as, Calliope, Anchise, fide. So re-, and die, with their compounds, quare, hodie, pridie, postridie, quotidie: Also Greek nouns which want the singular, Cetē, melē, Tempē; and the second person singular of the imperative of the second conjugation; as, Docē, manē; but cave, vale, and vide, are sometimes short.

Exc. 3. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declension are long; as, placide, pulchre, valde, contracted for valide; to these add ferme, ferè, and ohe; also all adverbs of the superlative degree; as, doctissimē, fortissimè: but beně and malě are short.