INTRODUCTION LIFE OF CICERO PLACE IN ROMAN HISTORY Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43*) is the most prominent l figure in the history of the last years of the republic. Born in an obscure country town, his family of the middle class only, without the prestige of wealth or noble birth, brought into contact with some of the greatest men Rome ever produced-Sulla, Caesar, Pompey, Antony, Octavian-aided only by his natural talent, high ambition and tireless industry, he left a name remarkably free from moral reproach, prominent in politics, incomparable in literature, the second if not the first in oratory. His Private Life.-Judged by the standard of to-day-a 2 standard by which Cicero alone of all the Romans is ever judged -his character was not spotless. He was intensely vain, hot tempered, not always considerate of his friends, vindictive toward his enemies, extravagant and selfish. On the other hand his morals were conspicuously pure. In an age of corruption and social degeneracy he was always above all scandal and reproach. He was merciful and compassionate to his slaves; his dealings with the poor and helpless were just and humane The lifelong devotion of Atticus and Tiro testifies 3 to his amiable and affectionate nature; his defense of Roscius, Sestius and Milo to his courage and loyalty. His tenderness to his daughter Tullia and his love for his brother Quintus touch us still. His wealth was acquired honorably, and, if spent lavishly, was spent on books and villas and works of *B. C. is to be understood with all dates in this book. art, not on the gratification of the meaner passions. His domestic relations became unhappy. After thirty years of married life he divorced Terentia. He married a young heiress and divorced her too. The sufferings of Tullia caused him the keenest sorrow, and his only son was dissipated and incapable. He found distraction, however, in his studies, and consolation in philosophy. His Political Career.-Cicero's political career began with 4 Lis quaestorship in Sicily in 75. At the earliest legal age he Lecame aedile (69) and praetor (66). In 63 he was consul, and suppressed the conspiracy of Catiline. In 58 he was exiled, but was soon recalled. During the so-called first triumvirate he was kept in the background, neglected alike by friends and foes During the civil war (49-45), after long and anxious hesitation, he espoused the cause of Pompey against Caesar, but finally was reconciled to the latter and lived on friendly terms with him until his assassination. He took no part in the plot against Caesar's life, yet openly exulted in the deed of the conspirators. For a short time his early vigor reasserted itself, and he headed the patriotic party against the new triumvirate. When the cause of the republic was finally lost he was among the first to fall victim to the proscription He was murdered in 43 at the age of 63. He 5 Cicero was a patriot-as a politician he was a failure. seemed unable to comprehend the tendencies of the times, the fickleness of the people, the rottenness of the aristocracy, the insufficiency of the old constitution. He was short-sighted, hesitating, by turns lenient to weakness and harsh to cruelty. He was easily swayed by circumstances, and often the tool of unscrupulous men. He lacked the far-seeing statesmanship, self-control and resolute determination that gave Caesar the victory, and the disinterestedness of purpose and stubbornness of will that made Cato great in defeat. But Augustus said of him, 'He loved his country.' His motives were pure, his integrity unimpeached, and he laid down his life for the republic. His Position in Literature.-To the pursuit of literature 6 Cicero brought extraordinary intellectual capabilities, a strong imagination, refined and elevated tastes and habits of application that excite our amazement. His learning was great -Varro alone of his contemporaries surpassed him—and to the end of his life he read and studied incessantly. His memory, like Macaulay's, was always in action, and he seems to have run easily over the immense accumulations of his intellect. He raised the Latin language to the highest plane of its development; Ciceronian Latin means all that is clear, direct and forcible. It is doubtful whether any writer of any age has been more widely read; it is certain that none has exercised a more powerful influence upon the world. There is no style of literature that he did not attempt; but it is to rhetoric, philosophy and his letters that he chiefly owes his fame. In 7 the first two his services to the Roman world as the mediator of Greek culture are beyond estimation; he was the first apostle to the Romans. His letters are to us a still more priceless treasure. They are a complete history of the times, bringing before us most vividly the last days of the republic. They are more than eight hundred in number and of various styles, some mere records of the events of the day, a few carefully prepared for publication as political pamphlets, the larger number friendly communications on all sorts of subjects to all sorts of people, revealing the writer's most personal relations and thoughts with the most transparent and engaging candor. Many of the letters of his correspondents too are preserved among them, and add still more, if possible, to their value. Cicero as an Orator.- Quintilian says of him: Apud posteros 8 id est consecutus, ut 'Cicero' iam non hominis nomen sed eloquentiae habeatur. In clearness, fulness, life and energy of style he has never been surpassed. He made for every speech the most careful and conscientious preparation, and handled his subjects with the most consummate skill He could confuse a thing when he chose, and weave a web of sophistry almost impossible to disentangle. What he wished to make clear he could put in the simplest, plainest, most forcible way, and he generally did it in the shortest sentences. He could be humorous, sarcas- 9 tic, pathetic, ironical, satirical, and when he was malignant his mouth was most foul and his bite most venomous. His orations are distinguished by variety and rapid change of sentiment. His delivery was impassioned and fiery, his voice strong, full and sweet, his figure tall, graceful and impressive. He possessed a wonderful influence over the senses and feelings of his hearers, and when other counsel were associated with him it was usual for Cicero to be the last to address the jury. By universal consent he is placed side by side with Demosthenes, or at least close after him. He surpassed the great Attic orator in variety and brilliancy, but lacked his moral earnestness and consequent impressiveness. In all ages he has been the model 10 and despair of the greatest orators. Petrarch and Erasmus, Chatham and Burke, Webster, Everett and Choate, all have felt and owned the powerful influence of his example. We know of over one hundred orations which he delivered; fifty-seven have been preserved entire, some twenty others in a fragmentary condition. We do not have them, however, in the precise form in which they were delivered, because it was his custom to prepare his speeches for publication by removing the parts of less permanent interest, and revising the rest. TO THE CANVASS FOR THE CONSULSHIP His Early Education.-Cicero was born on the 3d of 11 January, 106, at Arpinum, an old town in the land of the Volsci and the birthplace of Gaius Marius also. His family belonged to the equestrian order, and none of his ancestors had ever been a magistrate. Forced, therefore, to rely upon 12 his own merits to recommend him to the people, he devoted himself with all his might to the study of oratory, which was |