a. The nominatives ego, tū, nōs, võs, are used for emphasis: pestem, quam tū māchināris, the ruin which you plot; Cat. I. 1; nōs cōnsulēs dēsumus, we, the consuls, are at fault; Cat. I. 1.

b. The genitives nostri, vestri, are objective (99); nostrum and vestrum, as a rule, are genitives of the whole (103): quem nostrum, what man of us? Cat. I. 1. ducem memorem vestri, a leader mindful of you; Cat. IV. 9.

c. The plural of personal pronouns is sometimes used for the singular vidēs nōs multa cōnārī, you see that I (we) attempt many things; Orator, 30.

163. Reflexive Pronouns.

- The reflexive sẽ and the posses

sive suus may refer to the subject of the clause in which they stand (direct reflexive): sẽ suaque dēdidērunt, they surrendered themselves and their property; B. G. II. 15.

a. Se or suus in a subordinate clause may refer to the subject of the verb upon which the clause depends, if the clause expresses the thought of that subject (indirect reflexive): his mandavit ut ad sẽ referrent, he ordered them to report to him; B. G. I. 47.

b. Se or suus may refer to a person mentioned in the sentence, not the subject: desinant insidiārī domi suae cōnsuli, let them cease to plot against the consul in his own house; Cat. I. 13.

c. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons may be used in a reflexive sense, that is, they may denote the same person as the subject: mẽ condemnō, I find myself guilty; Cat. I. 2.

164. Possessive Pronouns. Possessive pronouns agree in gender, number, and case, with the word with which they are used, not with the word denoting the possessor: quis te ex tot tuis amīcīs salūtāvit? who of so many friends of yours saluted you? Cat. I. 7.

a. The possessive pronoun suus is used reflexively, that is, it refers to the subject of the sentence (163). When some other person or thing is meant, his, her, its, or their is expressed by the genitive of a demonstrative, ēius, eōrum, etc.: ēius socios, his allies; Cat. II. 2. illōrum respōnsis, according to their answers; Cat. III. 8.

b. The ablative of a possessive pronoun may be used in place of the objective genitive of a personal pronoun: nostrā (= nostri) caede, with the slaughter of us; Cat. I. 3.

165. Demonstrative Pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns, when not used as adjectives, take the gender and number of the

noun to which they refer: quis eum senator appellavit? what senator called him by name? Cat. II. 6.

a. Hic, this, refers to what is near the speaker in place, time, or thought; iste, that (of yours), to something near the person spoken to; ille (that) to what is remote: hic tamen vivit, yet this man lives; Cat. I. 1. ista subsellia, the benches near you; Cat. I. 7; aquilam illam argenteam, that silver eagle; Cat. I. 9.

b. Hic . . . ille may mean the latter the former: hic cum auxilium ferret, illum eripuit, when the latter brought help, he rescued him (the former); B. G. IV. 12.

c. Iste may be used to express contempt, especially when addressing opponents: istius furorem, the frenzy of that scoundrel; Cat. I. 1.

d. Ille may mean that famous: M. Catonem, illum senem, Marcus Cato, that (famous) old man; Ar. 7.

e. Is, this, that, is frequently used as the antecedent of qui, or in agreement with the antecedent: is qui hanc urbem servavit, he who saved this city; Cat. III. 1.

166. Intensive Pronoun. The pronoun ipse emphasizes the word to which it refers: Catilina ipse profugit, Catiline himself has fled; Cat. II. 3; erat scriptum ipsius manū, it had been written in his own hand; Cat. III. 5.

a. Ipse may mean very, exactly, of one's own accord; Catilinam ipsum egredientem, Catiline departing of his own accord; Cat. II. 1. b. Ipse may be used as a reflexive pronoun: si quid ipsī (= sibi) opus esset: if he needed anything (lit. if any need was to himself); B. G. I. 34.

167. Rela.ive Pronoun. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and person; its case depends upon the structure of the clause in which it stands: mẽ quid pudeat, qui vivo? why should I be ashamed who live? Ar. 6.

a. With two or more antecedents a relative pronoun may agree with the nearest or follow the rule for a predicate adjective (156): ōtium atque divitiae, quae prīma mortālēs putant, leisure and wealth which men consider of the first importance; Sall. Cat. 36.

b. The relative may not agree with its antecedent, but with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause: gladiātōrēs, quam manum certissimam fore putavit, the gladiators, whom he thought would be a most faithful band; Cat. II. 12.

c. The antecedent may stand in the relative clause: ut, quam

urbem pulcherrimam esse voluērunt, hanc defendant, that they may defend this city, which they wished to be the fairest; Cat. II. 13. d. The antecedent may be repeated, standing in both clauses: quae religiō . . . eå religiōne; Cat. III. 6.

e. The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite : sunt qui dicant, there are those who say; Cat. II. 6.

f. The relative pronoun at the beginning of an independent clause may be equivalent to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun, with or without a preceding conjunction (et, nam, sed): qui cum respondissent, and when they had replied; Cat. III. 5.

168. Interrogative Pronouns. The masculine singular of the interrogative pronoun, as a rule, is quis, who, and of the corresponding adjective is qui, what? of what sort? But qui may be used as a pronoun and quis as an adjective: quis të salūtāvit? who greeted you? Cat. I. 7; quis eum senator appellavit? what senator addressed him? Cat. II. 6.

169. Indefinite Pronouns. There are eight indefinite pronouns, as given with their meanings in 27. Quis, any one, is used chiefly after sī, nisi, në, num; quisquam, any one at all, is used chiefly in negative sentences, and in questions implying a negative si quid his accidat, if anything should happen to them; B. G. III. 22. neque quisquam est tam āversus à Musis, nor is any one so hostile to the Muses; Ar. 9.

a. Nescio quis (lit. I don't know who) is used with the force of aliquis, some (one) or other, and in this sense does not require the subjunctive: nesciò quò pactō, in some way or other; Cat. I. 13.

b. With superlatives quisque denotes a class: optimus quisque, all the best men (lit. each best man).

170. Alius and alter. Alius and alter may be adjectives or

pronouns. a. Alter

alius, one

alter mean the one another, alii .

alii,

some

the other, alius

others: hårum altera occisa, altera capta est, one of these was killed, the other taken prisoner; B. G. I. 53.

...

b. Two different cases of alius may be used in the same clauses with the meaning one (some) . . . one, another (others) . . another: aliud aliī nātūra iter ostendit, nature points out one road to one man, another to another; Sall. Cat. 2.

171. Agreement.

VERBS

- A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and person: haec cõnsul videt, the consul sees these things; Cat. I. 1.

a. If there are two or more subjects, connected by et, -que, or atque, the verb may agree with the nearest or be plural: Asia atque Mithridātēs nōs docuit, Asia and Mithridates taught us; P. 7.

b. If singular subjects are connected by words meaning either, neither, the verb is usually singular: neque agri cultūra nec ratiō atque usus belli intermittitur, neither the cultivation of the land nor the theory and practice of war is interrupted; B. G. IV. 1.

c. If two singular subjects form one idea, the verb is singular: Matrona et Séquana dīvidit, the Marne and Seine separate; B. G. I. 1.

d. A collective noun generally takes a singular verb, but may take a plural: cum tanta multitūdō tēla conicerent, when so great a crowd threw spears; B. G. II. 6.

e. If two or more subjects are of different persons, the first person is preferred to the other two, and the second to the third: sī tū et Tullia valētis, ego et Cicerō valēmus, if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well; Cic. Epist.

172. Impersonal Verbs. Some verbs are used only in the indicative and subjunctive, third person singular, and in the infinitive, without a personal subject. To this class belong :

a. Verbs meaning it happens, it is permitted, it is necessary, etc. Such verbs take a phrase or a clause as the subject: quae licet recognōscās, and these things you may recall (lit. it is permitted that you recall); Cat. I. 3.

b. Intransitive verbs used in the third person singular of the passive (112, Note 2): quocumque ventum sit, wherever they came (lit. it was come); P. 13.

c. Verbs of feeling: mē paenitēbit, I shall repent (lit. it will repent me); Cat. IV. 10.

d. The passive periphrastic of deponent verbs: mihi laetandum esse videō, I see that I must rejoice (lit. it must be rejoiced by me); P. 1.

Tenses of the Indicative

173. Present Indicative. The present indicative represents action as taking place at the time of speaking or writing: urbis

tēcta dēfendunt, they are defending the houses of the city; Cat. II. 13.

a. The present is often used instead of a past tense to describe an action more vividly. It is then called the historical present: litterās prōferri iubet, he orders the letter to be produced; Cat. III. 5.

b. The historical present may be used with dum, while (195, d). c. With diu, iam, iam diū, iam dūdum, the present is used of an action beginning in the past and continuing in the present: nimium diū tē castra desiderant, the camp has too long been missing you; Cat. I. 5.

174. Imperfect Indicative. The imperfect indicative represents action as going on in past time: putabam, I was thinking; Cat. III. 2.

a. The imperfect may be used in descriptions: erant duo itinera, there were two ways; B. G. I. 6.

b. The imperfect may represent an action as customary or attempted: classem hostium vidēbātis, you used to see the enemy's fleet; P. 12. quod faciēbas, which you were preparing to do; Cat. I. 5.

c. The imperfect with iam, iam diū, iam dūdum, iam prīdem, is used instead of a progressive perfect or pluperfect: iam pridem rapiebat, has long been hurrying; Cat. I. 10.

175. Future Indicative. The future indicative represents action as taking place in time to come: mē metū liberābis, you will free me from fear; Cat. I. 5.

176. Perfect Indicative. - The perfect indicative has two uses: a. The present perfect (translated by have), representing an action as completed in the present time: audivi, I have heard.

b. The historical perfect (English past), representing the action as an historical fact. This is the tense of narration, as the imperfect is the tense of description: ad praetōrem vēnistī, you went to the praetor; Cat. I. 8.

177. Pluperfect Indicative. The pluperfect indicative represents action as completed before some other past action: qui convenerant, who had assembled; Cat. III. 3.

178. Future Perfect. The future perfect represents action which is to be completed before some other future action: si tē interfici iusserō, residē bit coniürātōrum manus, if I order (shall have ordered) you to be killed, there will remain a band of conspirators; Cat. I. 5.