179. In some verbs a perfect, pluperfect, or future perfect have the force of a present, past, or future: memini, I remember; memineram, I remembered.

180. Epistolary Tenses. In letters a writer often takes the position of the receiver and uses the imperfect or historical perfect for a present, and a pluperfect for a present perfect: haec ego scribēbam, I am writing this (lit. was writing).

181. Primary and Secondary Tenses. - The present, future, and future perfect indicative, and the present and perfect subjunctive are primary tenses. The imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect indicative, and the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are secondary tenses.

Tenses of the Subjunctive

182. The four tenses of the subjunctive may denote the same time as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, or each tense may have a future force.

a. In subordinate clauses future time may be expressed by the present subjunctive after a primary tense; by the imperfect after a secondary tense: venit ut videat, he comes that he may see; vēnit ut videret, he came that he might see.

b. In subordinate clauses future perfect time may be expressed by the perfect subjunctive after a primary tense; by the pluperfect after a secondary tense: he says that if he goes (shall have gone, dīcit sī ierit; he said that if he should go (should have gone), dixit si isset.

c. In both clauses of conditional sentences the present subjunctive may denote future time, and the imperfect may denote present time (198).

183. Sequence of Tenses. In subordinate clauses the tense of the subjunctive depends on the following general rule: The present (or perfect) subjunctive is used after a primary tense; the imperfect (or pluperfect) subjunctive is used after a secondary: venit ut videat, he comes to see; rogābō quid feceris, I shall ask what you did; venit ut videret, he came to see.

a. The historical present may be regarded as either primary or secondary, and hence may take either sequence.

b. The present perfect, though properly a primary tense, often takes the secondary sequence: mihi ut satis esset praesidi prōvisum est, I have arranged that there should be ample protection; Cat. II. 12.

Uses of the Indicative

184. In principal clauses the indicative is used to express direct statements of fact and questions of fact. The negative is nōn: decrevit quondam senātus, the Senate once decreed; Cat. I. 2. meministine me dicere, do you remember that I said? Cat. I. 3.

185. The indicative is used in the following subordinate clauses: a. Noun clauses with quod, that: quid quod të in custōdiam dedisti? what of the fact that you gave yourself into custody? Cat. I. 8.

b. Parenthetical clauses with ut, as: ut saepe dixi, as I have often said; Cat. I. 9.

c. Clauses of comparison with ut saepe hominēs . . . sic hic morbus.

sic, as . 80: ut

.; Cat. I. 13.

d. Certain types of relative (191), temporal (195), causal (196), concessive (197), conditional (198) clauses.

The Subjunctive in Principal Clauses

186. The subjunctive expresses action as willed, desired, or possible. Accordingly we distinguish :

a. The subjunctive of will, or volitive subjunctive.

b. The subjunctive of desire, or optative subjunctive.

c. The subjunctive of possibility, or potential subjunctive. 187. In principal clauses the volitive subjunctive may express : a. An exhortation, in the first person plural of the present tense (negative, nē): optēmus, let us wish; Cat. II. 7.

b. A command, in the third person of the present tense (negative, nē): sēcēdant improbī, let the ill-disposed begone; Cat. I. 13. në patiantur, let them not allow; Cat. II. 4.

188. In principal clauses the subjunctive of wish or desire (optative subjunctive) takes the present tense to imply that the desire may be realized; the imperfect to imply that the desire is not now realized; the pluperfect to imply that the desire was not realized. Utinam may be used with the present, and generally is used with the other tenses. The negative regularly is nē: utinam dī immortālēs duint, O that the gods may give; Cat. I. 9; utinam suās cōpiās ēdūxisset, O that he had taken his forces; Cat. II. 2.

189. In principal clauses the subjunctive may express action as possible or conditional (potential subjunctive), and is translated by may, might, can, could, should, would. The negative is non dicat aliquis, some one may say.

The Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses

190. The subjunctive is used in the following subordinate clauses:

a. Purpose clauses (193).

b. Result clauses (194).

c. Clauses of proviso (199).

d. Indirect questions (202).

e. Certain types of: relative clauses (192), temporal clauses (195), causal clauses (196), concessive clauses (197), conditional clauses (198), noun clauses (203), direct questions (201).

Relative Clauses

191. The indicative is used in the following relative clauses: a. Clauses that state what person or thing the antecedent is (determinative clauses): hōs, qui exercitum dēseruērunt, those men who have deserted the army; Cat. II. 3.

Note. Determinative clauses are used as pronouns, and must be distinguished from descriptive clauses which are used as adjectives (192).

b. Clauses that state a fact parenthetically, or that add a fact not necessary to the main statement (parenthetical clauses): Santonum finēs, qui nōn longè à Tolōsātium finibus absunt, the country of the Santones, which is not far from the country of the Tolosates; B. G. I. 10.

192. Relative clauses that state what kind of person or thing the antecedent is, are called descriptive or characteristic clauses. The subjunctive is used in descriptive clauses, if they are essential to the completeness of the sentence; otherwise, the indicative is used (191, b). The preceding independent clause often con- . tains a statement of existence like est qui, sunt qui: sunt qui dicant, there are some who say; Cat. II. 6; quam diù quisquam erit, qui të defendere audeat, as long as there will be a man who dares to defend you; Cat. I. 2.

a. The subjunctive is used in relative clauses to denote purpose or result (193, 194): ut praesto esset ille, qui fugientēs exciperet, that he might be on hand to cut off the fugitives; Cat. III. 4; nēmō tam improbus, qui nōn fateātur, no one so depraved as not to admit; Cat. I. 2.

b. The subjunctive is used in relative clauses to denote cause, concession, or condition: qui (= cum ego) māgnō in periculo

essem, since I was in great peril; Cat. I. 8; Cethēgus, qui (= cum is) respondisset, Cethegus who (although he) had replied; Cat. III. 5; mihi ferreus, qui (= sī is) nōn suum dolōrem lēnierit, to me (he would seem) hard-hearted, who (if he) did not soothe his grief; Cat. IV. 6.

c. The subjunctive is used in relative clauses to denote obligation, after dignus, indīgnus, idōneus: dignōs, quōrum salutem commendētis, worthy to have you entrust their safety (lit. whose safety you should entrust); P. 5.

Purpose Clauses

193. The subjunctive with ut, nē, or a relative may express purpose: ut timēre dēsinam, that I may cease to fear; Cat. I. 7; ac nē longum sit, and not to be tedious; Cat. III. 5; praetōrem misi, qui efferret, I sent a praetor to bring; Cat. III. 3.

a. In clauses containing a comparative, quō (= ut eō) is used instead of ut to express purpose: quo facilius prohibere possit, that he may be able to prevent more easily; B. G. I. 8.

b. Purpose may be expressed also by a gerund (227), a gerundive (226), or by a supine (229).

Result Clauses

194. The subjunctive with ut, ut nōn, or a relative may express result: mōns impendebat, ut prohibere possent, a mountain was overhanging, so that they could prevent; B. G. I. 6.

a. There is often in the principal clause a correlative word meaning so, such, so great, as ita, sīc, tam, tālis, tantus, īs, iste: tam improbus, qui non fateatur, so depraved that he does not admit; Cat. I. 2.

Temporal Clauses

195. In temporal clauses:

a. Ubi, ut (when), postquam, posteaquam, cum primum, simul atque, take the indicative, usually the perfect, sometimes the historical present: ubi sē parātōs esse arbitrātī sunt, oppida sua incendunt, when they thought they were ready, they burned their towns; B. G. I. 5.

b. Cum (when) takes the indicative to define the time of the action of the main verb; the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive to describe the circumstances of the main action: tum, cum ex urbe ēiciebam, at the time when I drove him from the city; Cat.

III. 2; cum haesitäret, quaesivi, when he hesitated, I asked;
Cat. II. 6.
Note.

with time.

Cum may denote cause or concession in connection

c. Cum, whenever, introducing repeated action, generally takes the indicative, but may take the subjunctive: cum aliquid mandārat, whenever he had given a commission; Cat. III. 7.

d. Dum, meaning while, generally takes the indicative historical present (173, b): dum morātur, while he delayed (lit. delays); B. G. I. 39.

e. Dum, quoad, or quam diú, meaning as long as, take the indicative: quam diù quisquam erit, as long as there shall be any one; Cat. I. 2.

f. Dum, dōnec, or quoad, meaning until, take the indicative of an actual event, but the subjunctive of an expected event: quoad potuit, restitit, he resisted as long as he could; B. G. IV. 12; dum nāvēs eō convenirent exspectavit, he waited until the ships should arrive; B. G. IV. 23.

g. Antequam and priusquam take the indicative to denote an actual event, but the subjunctive to denote an expected event: priusquam pervēnērunt, before they arrived; B. G. I. 53. priusquam quicquam cōnārētur, before he should attempt anything; B. G. I. 19.

196. In causal clauses :

Causal Clauses

a. Quod, quia, quoniam, and quando take the indicative when the speaker or writer gives his own reason, but the subjunctive when he gives another's reason, or a reason not surely known by himself: quod stantem urbem reliquit, quantō illum maerōre esse adflictum putatis, because he left the city standing, with what sorrow do you think he has been filled? Cat. II. 1; urbs mihi laetārī videtur, quod tantam pestem prōiēcerit, the city seems to me to rejoice, because (as she says) she has cast out so great an evil; Cat. II. 1.

b. Cum, meaning since or because, and qui (= cum is) take the subjunctive: quae cum ita sint, since these things are so; Cat. I. 5.

Concessive Clauses

197. Concessive clauses grant or concede something. They are formed as follows: