n. But if the allusive or descriptive word is essential to the idea to be conveyed, it must be given outright in a clause or special expression: as,

But the veteran could not be deceived: ille autem ut qui esset rei bellicae peritissimus — illudi non potuit.

o. The tendency in Latin to a direct form of statement requires that the main idea should be asserted directly in the main clause, and not hidden in a relative clause, participle, or adverb (compare v). The necessary emphasis is to be given by position. For example,

1. A fresh blow came, that crushed the city, clades nova civitatem adflixit.

2. It is these that delight in flattery, hos delectat adsentatio.

3. You are the very man I was looking for, te ipsum quaerebam.

II.

STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE.

THE best English writers give a connected story or argument in short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and a logical relation among all its parts is carefully indicated, so that the whole forms a compact group.

But gloomy silence and voiceless sorrow had paralyzed the minds of the inhabitants. For very dread they forgot what they were leaving behind, what they were carrying with them. With no fixed idea, and inquiring every man of his neighbor, they were at one moment standing at their thresholds, at another wandering restlessly through their homes to see the end.

For example,

Sed silentium triste ac tacita maestitia ita deflixit omnium animos, ut, prae metu obliti quid relinquerent quid secum ferrent, deficiente consilio, rogitantesque alii alios, nunc in liminibus starent, nunc errabundi domos suas, ultimum illud visuri, pervagarentur.

p. In particular, so much of a statement as can be so treated, with its attendant circumstances, modifications, &c., is put into a

single complex sentence, called a Period (§ 76, 4; compare s). Thus,

Qui cum, multis circa finitimos populos legationibus terra marique nequicquam missis, nisi quod ex Etruria haud ita multum frumenti advectum est, nullum momentum annonae fecisset; et, revolutus ad dispensationem inopiae, profiteri cogendo frumentum et vendere quod usu menstruo superesset, fraudandoque parte diurni cibi servitia, criminando inde et obiciendo irae populi frumentarios, acerba inquisitione aperiret magis quam levaret inopiam; multi ex plebe spe amissa potius quam ut cruciarentur trahendo animam, capitibus obvolutis se in Tiberim praecipitaverunt.

Here the principal fact expressed in the main clause is, that many of the people drowned themselves rather than submit to slow starvation; while the cruel policy that drove them to it is described in subordinate clauses. In English it might be told as follows:

He sent a number of embassies by land and sea to the surrounding nations, but effected no result beyond the importation of an insignificant amount of corn from Etruria, and produced no movement in the market. On applying himself to the administration of the meagre supplies, he compelled people to make a report of the corn they held, and to offer for sale all that exceeded the necessary supply of their wants for a month. He robbed the slaves of part of their daily rations, and proceeded to libel the corn-merchants, and expose them to the fury of the populace. By this galling inquisitorial policy he revealed rather than relieved the distress. Many of the lower orders, in utter despair, bandaged the eyes and threw themselves into the Tiber, rather than endure the torment of a prolonged existence.

q. Even when long periods are not used, still the logical connection is indicated by the use of connecting Relatives (see § 48, 4) ; or (gg) by Correlative words and Particles, especially idem, itaque, autem, enim, vero, quidem.

r. But, in coördinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are omitted oftener than in English (asyndeton); the connection being made clear by the Position of words and by Antithesis.

s. Of two coördinate clauses with and, the less important is merged in the other by the aid of participles and subordinate phrases. In such cases a change of subject should be avoided.

t. A change of subject should be marked by the introduction of a pronoun, if the new subject has been already mentioned in the preceding sentence. But (tt) the needless use of pronouns may be avoided by change of structure.

u. A noun should be kept in the same case if possible.

In illustration of these points, compare the following examples:

1. Then he called them together, and having briefly addressed them waited a little, and led them out with him. Tunc convocatos cum breviter admonuisset, paulisper moratus secum eduxit.

2. The plan was universally approved, and its execution was intrusted to the consul. Cunctis rem approbantibus, negotium consuli datur.

8

3. This matter was soon accomplished, and the legions returned to winter-quarters. Eo celeriter confecto negotio, in hiberna legiones redierunt. 4. When Midas the Phrygian was a child, and asleep, some ants piled grains of corn upon his lips. Midae illi Phrygio," cum puer esset, dormienti formicae in os tritici grana congesserunt.

5. They came to the king at Pergamus. He received the ambassadors kindly, and conducted them to Pessinus. Pergamum ad regem venerunt, qui legatos comiter exceptos Pessinuntem deduxit.

6. If I cannot crush the pain, I will hide it. Dolorem" si non potero frangere, occultabo.

7. When the barbarians saw that he had escaped the flames, they hurled darts at him from a distance, and killed him. Quem ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, telis eminus emissis interfecerunt.

8. When Zopyrus, who professed to be able to read every one's character from his outward appearance, had at a party made a large catalogue of moral defects to reproach Socrates with, the rest laughed him to scorn; but Socrates came to his assistance. Cum multa in conventu vitia collegisset in eum Zopyrus, qui se naturam cujusque ex forma perspicere profitebatur, derisus est a ceteris, ab ipso autem Socrate suble

vatus tt

9. For they believe that these divinities were born in the realm, and that grain was first discovered in their land; and that Libera, whom they also call Proserpine, was carried off from the grove of Enna. It is said that Ceres, in the course of her anxious search for her daughter, kindled her torch at the fires that blaze from Etna's summit; and, holding it before her, wandered over the whole world. Nam et natas esse has in iis locis deas, et fruges in ea terra primum repertas esse arbitrantur, et raptam esse Liberam, quam eamdem Proserpinam vocant, ex Hennensium nemore. Quam cum investigare et conquirere Ceres vellet, dicitur inflammasse taedas iis ignibus qui ex Aetnae vertice erumpunt; quas sibi cum ipsa praeferret, orbem omnem peragrasse terrarum.

v. In turning loose sentences into periods, be sure to get the main idea in the main clause, and keep the other clauses in their proper relations (compare o). In general, the main subject or

object must be put in the main clause, not in the subordinate ones. Thus

1. When Hannibal had reviewed his auxiliary forces, he set out for Gades. Hannibal, cum recensuisset auxilia, Gades profectus est.

2. The augur Tiresias is described by the poets as a philosopher, and is never represented as bewailing his blindness. Augurem Tiresiam, quem sapientem fingunt poetae, numquam inducunt deplorantem caecitatem

suam.

3. The Volscians found that, now they were severed from every other hope, there was but little hope in prolonging the conflict. In addition to other disadvantages, they had engaged on a spot ill adapted for fighting, and worse for flight. Cut to pieces on every side, they abandoned the contest and cried for quarter. After surrendering their commander and delivering up their arms, they passed under the yoke; and with one garment each were sent to their homes, covered with disgrace and defeat. Volsci exiguam spem in armis, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, praeter cetera adversa, loco quoque iniquo ad pugnam congressi, iniquiore ad fugam, cum ab omni parte caederentur, ad preces a certamine versi, dedito imperatore traditisque armis, sub jugum missi, cum singulis vestimentis, ignominiae cladisque pleni dimittuntur».

Here the main thought is the return of the Volscians: the circumstances of the surrender, &c., are put in the several subordinate clauses.

vv. The clauses should be arranged in the natural order of time or logical sequence, cause before result; purpose, manner, and the like, before the act. (There are, however, many exceptions to this rule, from the tendency to put the more important first or else last.)

w. Latin has a great fondness for antithesis and sharp contrasts, setting one word phrase or clause against another. This tendency will often control the order of words, phrases, or clauses.

x. As to the order of words: let the MAIN WORD be seized and put at the beginning (see Part I. p. 2). By this means the drift of the clause or sentence may almost always be indicated in advance.

y. A verb in the active voice is often rendered in Latin by the passive, and conversely, to avoid change of subject, or to secure a personal or concrete subject rather than an impersonal or abstract one (compare cc, with Lesson 20).

2. There are many idiomatic phrases which are to be rendered by Particles in Latin, especially in colloquial expressions, such as: WELL NOW, atque; TO BE SURE, BY THE WAY, IN FACT (also WHY!), quidem; FOR, YOU SEE, etenim; AND AFTER ALL, atque; CONSIDERING, ut; I say, igitur. YES may be given by etiam, maxime, vero, with a pronoun, or by repeating the verb; NO by immo, non, minime, or, repeating a word with the negative (see Grammar, § 71, 3. a). These can only be learned by practice with the Latin particles.

THE following examples include most of the idiomatic usages which have already been explained, together with some others, brought together here for convenient reference:

I. I come to help you, adjutor tibi venio (Part I. page 3). 2. I remember when a boy, puer memini.

3. Fabius in his second consulship, Fabius consul iterum.

4. A continued series of events, continuatio et series rerum (p. 5).

5. Both consuls were slain, uterque consul occisus est (p. 7).

6. He came against his will, invitus venit.

7. He was the first to see, primus vidit (p. 8).

8. The rest of the crowd, reliqua multitudo.

9. All men praise bravery, omnes fortia laudant (p. 9).

10. The fight at Cannæ, pugna Cannensis.

II. Another man's house, aliena domus.

12. I prefer the art of memory to that of forgetfulness, memoriae artem quam oblivionis malo (p. 12).

13. The army of Cæsar defeated that of Pompey, Caesaris exercitus Pompeianos vicit.

14. That [just mentioned] is a great argument, but this is a greater, that, &c., hoc magnum est argumentum, illud autem majus, quod, etc. (p. 13).

15. It is just three years, tres anni ipsi sunt.

16. The book you gave me, liber quem mihi dedisti (p. 15).

17. Cæsar the conqueror of Gaul, Caesar qui Galliam vicit.

18. A class, of which there is great lack, cujus generis magna est paucitas.

19. Those evils which we suffer with many seem to us lighter, quae mala cum multis patimur ea nobis leviora videntur.